
THROUGH THE 

STEREOSCOPE 



TEAGHER\S 

MANUAL 



UNDERWOOD Se. UNDERWOOD 





Class 
Book 



(q73 



.E53 



Gopyright]*^" 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



GEOGRAPHY 

THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 



TEACHER'S MANUAL 



By 



PHILIP EMERSON 

Principal of the Cobbet School, Lynn, Mass, 
Author of a ''Geography of the New England States,'' etc. 



AND 

WILLIAM CHARLES MOORE 

Instructor in Geography at the State Normal School^ 
Salem, Mass» 



UNDERWOOD & UNDERWOOD 
New York London 



ftlSBARY of CONGRESS 
two CoDles Rdoelvod 
NOV 4 '«>^ 

Copynfflit Entry 

CLASS A XXC, NO. 

/^/ J <5 

COPY B 



GrTS 



Copyright, 1907 

BY 

UNDERWOOD & UNDERWOOD 
New York and London 

(Entered at Stationers' Hall) 



A I! Stereographs Copyrighted 



MAP SYSTEM 

Patented in the United States, Augfust 21, 1900 
Patented in Great Britain, March 22, 1900 
Patented in France, March 26, 1900. S.G.D.G. 
Switzerland, Patent 21,211 

SCHOOLROOM CHARTS 
Patent Applied For 



All Rights Reservea 



Printed in the United States 



CONTENTS 

Introductory — page 
I. The Stereograph in the teaching of Geog- 
raphy 5 

II. Plan of work, and schoolroom charts. ....... 17 

III. Aims, values and methods 26 

Positions Taken by Pupils, and Materials Needed 57 

The Plan of Cataloguing Stereographs 67 

NORTH AMERICA 

New York City 69 

Niagara Falls 72 

Western Scenery 77 

Quebec 81 

Mexico 82 

SOUTH AMERICA 

Andean Region 86 

EUROPE 

Ireland 91 

Great Britain * 93 

The Iberian Peninsula 95 

France 97 

Holland and Belgium loi 

The Scandinavian Peninsula 103 

Germany 106 

Alpine Life and Scenery 109 

Italy 113 

Russia 118 

Greece 121 

AFRICA 

Egypt 123 

Central Africa 127 

ASIA 

India and Ceylon 131 

China '. . 134 

Japan 137 

Korea 140 

The Philippine Islands 142 



CONTEXTS 

INDUSTRIES OF THE WORLD page 

Textiles 143 

Foods 145 

Mining, Manufacturing and Lumbering 148 

VOLCANOES 

Notes for the Teacher 150 

Index 152 



INTRODUCTORY 

I. The Stereograph in the Teaching of 
Geography 

The aim sought in the study of Geography is a 
knowledge of the geographical facts of the world 
and an understanding of their relations. Two im- 
portant classes of facts between w^hich these relations 
exist are recognized — those concerning the life of 
the world and those which constitute the physical 
environment of that life. In the study of geography, 
therefore, the results to be expected are a knowl- 
edge of these facts, and an appreciation of the effect 
of the climatic and varied physiographic conditions 
on the life and activities of man. 

The means that have so far been brought within 
the reach of pupils in the study of geography 
have certainly been imperfect. Home geogra- 
phy, it is true, can be studied at first hand 
through knowledge gained by means of school 
excursions, and in the ordinary course of the 
pupil's life. But, in the study of the great world 
beyond the home surroundings, pupils have been de- 
pendent upon word-descriptions, upon maps, and to 
an increasing extent in recent years, upon pictures. 

Teachers of geography have in the past depended 
mainly on written language. Speaking of this means 
of teaching. Professor O'Shea says, in his "Educa- 
tion as x^djustment," that it puts a scholar in his 
seat and gives him adaptation to a book. In contrast 



6 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

to this, Professor O'Shea, as so many others have 
done, recommends a method that will take the pupil 
out into the world or bring the world to him, using 
the book only when it restates, though in a new set- 
ting, some experience the scholar has already had. 
This plan, he says, will do for the teacher what 
evolution did for the philosopher — open up a 
world of real substance and not one of mere ver- 
bal and formal values. And, when we consider how 
narrow the average school-child's range of actual 
experience is, we see what a revolution such new 
methods would mean for him. 

In recent years many and perhaps most teachers 
have held the right theories about teaching 
geography. The difficulty has been to find adequate 
means of putting the theories into practice — of tak- 
ing the scholar out into the world or bringing the 
world to him. Undoubtedly, the greatest advance 
so far toward the accomplishment of this result has 
been made by the utilization of pictures. Indeed, 
there has been a rapidly growing appreciation of the 
great superiority of pictures over mere verbal de- 
scriptions. 

Now, however, a new step is being taken in the 
recognition of the difference in pictures. Millions 
of dollars have been spent in the last decade for 
illustrations of one kind or another. G. Stanley 
Hall says they have multiplied more in the last ten 
years than in all the previous history of mankind. 
And yet only recently has the difference in illustra- 
tions received any adequate attention by educators. 
Especially is it true that only recently have people 



INTRODUCTORY 7 

been waking up to the importance of the one great 
fundamental difference in photographic illustrations, 
— the difference between photographs based on the 
principle of two-eye vision and photographs based 
on the principle of one-eye vision, or the difference 
between stereoscopic and all other kinds of photo- 
graphs. In fact, the use of the stereoscopic photo- 
graph or stereograph, and of the instrument through 
which it is viewed, the stereoscope, was for many 
years limited to mere amusement and entertain- 
ment. As one writer says, "It seems to be the fate 
of every great scientific discovery to serve a kind of 
apprenticeship to the almost childish wonder and 
curiosity of the general public. For many years the 
stereoscope was regarded as a toy. The use that 
was made of it, except by a limited number of think- 
ing people, was unworthy of the great discovery of 
Sir Charles Wheatstone." But some might ask, if 
there is so important a difference between stereo- 
graphs and all other kinds of illustrations, why has 
it not been more generally realized before? We get 
a clue to the answer to this question in a sentence 
by Professor Le Conte in his book on ''Sight/' 
'The field of binocular (two-eye) phenomena is a 
closed world, to most, even intelligent, people." 
Now, as the very nature of stereographs is ''binocu- 
lar phenomena," this means that the very nature of 
stereographs has been "a closed world, to most, even 
intelligent, people." Professor Le Conte goes 
further in explaining this by saying that binocular, 
or two-eye phenomena are illusor\^ and difficult of 
analysis, being to so great a degree subjective and 



8 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

closely allied to psychical phenomena. It is there- 
fore easy to understand the statement that only in 
the past few years has any real effort been made 
to gain and make generally known definite and 
practical ideas as to the nature of the stereograph 
and the experiences people may have in connection 
with it. In this place we have room for only the 
briefest statement of the results attained. For fuller 
treatment of the subject the reader is referred to 
literature published by Underwood & Underwood 
and to such books on vision as Professor Le Conte's 
"Sight." 

For the benefit of those who may not have given 
this subject any particular attention, we ought to 
summarize here a few fundamental facts about 
binocular or two-eye vision and binocular or stere- 
oscopic photographs. Most people have never 
stopped to think why we have two eyes. To them, 
the second eye seems only a generous provision in 
case one eye should be lost. The second eye, though, 
means much more than that to us. First of all, since 
our eyes are some distance apart, each eye gets a 
somewhat different view of all solid objects near us. 
The right eye sees a little farther around the right 
side, the left eye farther around the left side of the 
object. This fact, together with other facts, means 
that a person with two eyes gets a very different idea 
of the shape and size and distance of objects than a 
person with one eye. But, great as the difference 
is, it is easy to overlook it. When we close one 
eye we might think we see about as well as when 
both eyes are open, but this is a mistake. 



INTRODUCTORY 9 

Psychologists say we read into what we see with 
one eye shut, what we have learned with both eyes 
open. Some unusual test is required to make us 
wake up to the defects of one-eye vision. 

Xow, turning to photographs, all ordinary photo- 
graphs are made by a camera with a single lens — 
thus showing an object or place as it would be seen 
by a person with one eye. Stereographs or stereo- 
scopic photographs, on the other hand, are made 
with a camera having two lenses, set about as far 
apart as our two eyes. A stereoscopic camera, 
therefore, always gives two photographs of places or 
objects. These two photographs are mounted side 
by side on the stereoscopic card, and to the casual 
glance appear alike, yet, since they are taken from 
different points of view, they must of course always 
dift'er somewhat — in fact, exactly as the impression 
received by one of our eyes dift'ers from the impres- 
sion received by the other. Xow. when these two 
slightly different photographs are looked at in the 
stereoscope, the eff'ect is radically dift'erent from 
what we should get in looking at an ordinary photo- 
graph in our hands, indeed the effect is in all es- 
sential respects the same as that which we should 
get by standing where the camera stood and look- 
ing at the scene itself. But great as this 
dift'erence is between the ordinar\' and the 
stereoscopic photograph it is easy to underesti- 
mate it, exactly as it is easy to underestim.ate the 
dift'erence between one and two-eye vision. We al- 
ways tend to overestimate the ordinary photograph. 
We read into it more than we reallv see in it. Here 



10 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

again some unusual device is required to make us 
realize its great defects.* 

But to analyze briefly the effect given in the 
stereoscope — we get, first of all, perfect or actual 
space for our minds, as contrasted with the appear- 
ance of space in ordinary photographs. Objects 
stand out in all three dimensions, or as solids, as in 
nature. Second, we see objects and places life-size, 
that is, in natural size and at natural distance. Be- 
cause of the smallness of the tv\^o photographs com- 
posing the stereograph, it is natural to assume that 
things are seen in the stereoscope in miniature; but 
the two prints, a few inches from the eyes, serve as 
window^s through which we look. Third, while 
looking at these stereographed scenes in all three di- 
mensions, life-size, and of almost infinite accuracy 
of detail, and with one's immediate surroundings 
shut away by the hood of the stereoscope, it is pos- 
sible to lose all consciousness of the place where the 
body is, and to gain, for appreciable lengths of time, 
a distinct consciousness or experience of being in 
the very presence of the object or place represented. 
This is the unrivaled claim for the stereograph. 

It is not held, however, that such an experience 
can be gotten in connection with the stereograph un- 
less it is used or looked at in the right way, and with 
the right helps. Nothing shows more clearly that 
the time is ripe for the serious use of the stereo- 
graph than the fact that only in the past few 



* The publishers issue some cards with diagrams and 
photocTa-nhs so mounted on them as to bring out in a striking 
manner the difference between ordinary and stereoscopic 
photographs. 



INTRODUCTORY 11 

years has serious attention been given to the helps 
and methods to be employed in its use. The impor- 
tant results from attention to this field thus far at- 
tained are a map system (now patented) and guide 
books written in a special style. 

By this patent map system a person is able to 
know at once just what part of a country or city he 
is seeing through the stereoscope, the direction in 
which he is looking, and the surroundings to the 
right and left and behind him. It is evident that 
such knowledge must be an essential part of an ex- 
perience of actually being in a place, hence it is ab- 
solutely necessary that it be given if vre circ to make 
sucli experiences possible in connection with the ster- 
eograph. This map system is marvelously simple 
and yet entireh^ adequate for this purpose. 

The guide books serve two purposes. First, au- 
thorities on different countries strive to serve in 
these books as personal guides to the places seen 
through the stereoscope. They point out objects of 
importance, give some information, and try to 
arouse and quicken interests that will bring returns 
of pleasure and profit thereafter. Second, they 
strive to aid people to lose all consciousness of the 
place where they may be while looking at the stereo- 
graph, and to gain an experience of being in the 
place represented. Indeed, this is their final aim. 
Recognizing that such an experience is possible in 
connection with the stereoscope, if people look with 
adequate information and the right attitude of mind, 
the authors not only give the information but sug- 
gest the right mental attitude. For this reason tliey 



12 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

use the first person and the present tense in the text, 
endeavoring to say everything as they would if 
standing by their fellow-travelers in the presence 
of the actual place. 

Of course there are definite limitations to the ex- 
periences made possible by this means, as compared 
to those of the actual traveler. As others have 
pointed out, we do not gain the traveler's experience 
of movement. We can have only experiences of 
standing in certain specific places and looking over 
definite and limited fields of vision. We do not re- 
ceive impressions through our senses of touch, taste, 
smell, or hearing — all our impressions come through 
our sense of sight. But sight is more important than 
all our other senses in giving us our experiences of 
location, and is indeed sufficient for this purpose. 
Furthermore, the times when we can forget our 
bodily surroundings and gain a consciousness of 
being in the places represented will be limited, per- 
haps to periods of a few seconds each, but feelings 
and emotions come quickly, and hence we can know 
a part at least of the feeling stirred by bein^f in these 
places. At any rate we should see, that, though 
there is a difference in the ciuantity or intensity of 
the feelings, there need be no difference in the kind 
of feelings experienced. We may experience the 
same kind of feelings and emotions that we should 
experience in the places themselves. And the fact 
that one can come back to these scenes in the stereo- 
graph again and again makes it undoubtedly possible 
to approximate much nearer than we think to the 
full emotional experience of the traveler. In other 



INTRODUCTORY 13 

words, it is now recognized not only that we have 
in the stereograph the cHmax of all illustrations, 
but also that (when certain helps are provided and 
it is looked at in the right way) the experiences 
thus made possible are comparable to those we 
should get by being carried unconsciously to the 
places in question and allowed to look at them. 

Here then is found the one means by which pupils 
can be taken out into the world, a means of ''enor- 
mously expanding the horizon of their daily lives." 
Certainly the changes thus made possible in the 
methods of teaching geography are little less than 
revolutionar}\ 

Important, however, as these discoveries in con- 
nection with the stereograph are, whenever the edu- 
cator has considered the use of the stereoscope and 
stereograph in the schoolroom, he has been met by 
serious problems. The stereograph is for the indi- 
vidual ; but one person can use it at a time. The only 
w^ay to make it a basis for systematic class work has 
been to provide stereoscope? and duplicate stereo- 
graphs for ever}" pupil. This plan has been felt 
to be prohibitive because of its cost, except for the 
wealthier schools. The other alternative has been 
to provide stereoscopes and stereographs for refer- 
ence or supplementar}' work, like library books, or to 
provide stereoscopes for the cla - a :d then stere- 
ographs to be passed around rr: g- the recita- 
tion. In the last few years :ht srere jscope has 
been rapidly coming into use in these ways. But 
even with the most generous equipment of stere- 
oscopes and duplicate stereographs there was no 



14 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

assurance that this material would be utilized to 
the best advantage. Nevertheless, by unsystematic 
and desultory use it is seen that results are realized 
that can be gotten by no other means. However, 
it has been clearly recognized that nothing like the 
best returns from the stereographs were being 
obtained. 

The obvious need was for some plan by which 
systematic classroom work with the stereograph 
could be made easy and natural for both teacher and 
pupils, and yet which should avoid anything like the 
expense of a full equipment for each scholar. Over 
three years ago, the authors of this book, strongly 
impressed with the importance of this need, began 
the task of working out such a plan. The present 
scheme is the result of over two years of actual ex- 
perience in the practice department of the State 
Normal School at Salem, Massachusetts, and in the 
classrooms of the Cobbet Grammar School in Lynn, 
Massachusetts. 

It was found that this task involved three things. 
I. A careful and rigid selection of stereographs. 2. 
A plan to provide for systematic work with less than 
a full equipment for each member of the class. 3. 
Detailed guidance for both pupil and teacher as to 
individual study and class discussion. 

In connection with the choice of suitable stereo- 
graphs it must be borne in mind that the world of 
geographical facts is infinite in extent. Considering 
the limited time of the pupil and the expense to the 
school, it was therefore of primary importance that 
the selection of stereographs be made with the 



INTRODUCTORY 15 

Utmost care and judgment. In the prosecution of 
this work the authors have had access to the stereo- 
graphs of Underwood & Underwood, generally rec- 
ognized as the largest publishers of stereoscopic pho- 
tographs in the world. The schools of the country 
are certainly fortunate in having so magnificent a col- 
lection from all parts of the earth at their disposal. 
Yet the very richness of the collection in extent and 
variety can be a source of confusion to the teachers 
as well as a means of injudicious expense to the 
school. In consequence, out of the abundance of 
material there were selected only the most typical 
places to be visited through the stereoscope. 

One feature of this work that may occasion com- 
ment is the absence of "a more systematic treatment 
of the United States. The main reason for this is 
the great expense to the schools of any such treat- 
ment, at least according to States. Other reasons 
are the greater abundance of illustrative matter on 
the United States already within the reach of teach- 
ers, and the prevalence of information in relation 
to the material. Still, the lack of a full treatment of 
the United States in this work is more apparent than 
real, inasmuch as many stereographs of different 
parts of the United States are listed under ''Indus- 
tries of the World." See p. 374 of the Index. 

In regard to the classroom equipment, it was evi- 
dent at once, that, if complete duplication was to be 
avoided and yet systematic work secured, some 
means must be devised whereby the pupils could 
work independently of each other and of the teach- 
er. This called for something in the nature of a lab- 



16 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

oratory manual in the hands of the individual pupil. 
Accordingly, the ''Student's Stereoscopic Field 
Guide'' has been provided, which aims to take the 
place of the teacher in connection with each place to 
be seen through the stereoscope. This ''Teacher's 
Manual" has also been prepared. 

The Student's Guide outlines the preparatory les- 
son that the teacher is to give her class as an intro- 
duction to every new topic or group of positions in 
the field. It gives in full detail questions and any 
necessary information needed by the student for 
effective and thorough independent study. It also 
suggests a great variety of plans for supplementing 
the stereographic study and directing the thought 
of both pupil and teacher to the great general truths 
of geography in which work should culminate. 

In preparing the Guide the authors have striven 
constantly to use such language as would aid the 
pupil and teacher to gain experiences of actual pres- 
ence in the places seen in the stereoscope. Thus the 
word, "Position," is used throughout for stereo- 
graph, the language of travel' is used wherever prac- 
tical; the words, "Field Guide," are used in the title 
of the book itself. 

The Teacher's Manual aims to give suggestions 
concerning the best reference books, an authorita- 
tive statement of conclusions upon the most 
important matters and upon any which might 
prove troublesome, and the results of special 
experience in the use of the stereographs in school 
work. The aim has been to lead students to dis- 



INTRODUCTORY ' 17 

cover facts themselves, but to give to teachers all the 
assistance and information that any may need. 

One other great advance which is made in this 
work should be spoken of particularly. Pictures in 
geographies have been used almost wholly as illiiS' 
tratious, or a supplement to the text. Here the order 
is reversed. W hat the pupil and teacher see in the 
stereograph forms the real text, and all that is 
said in the Student's Guide and Teacher's Manual is 
intended as a supplement to what is seen — as a help 
to its imderstanding. In other words, we provide 
full plans for using stereographed scenes as original 
sources of information. 

11. Plan of Work and Schoolroom Charts 

The plan employed in the working out of the 
scheme assumes that the class numbers 48 pupils 
and provides for the division of the class into two 
sections. It may, however, be easily modified to fit 
classes of any size. While one section uses the 
stereographs the other will be engaged in recita- 
tion. The equipment for a class section of 24 pupils 
for one period is 12 stereoscopes, 12 stereographs 
and 24 of the Student's Guides. At the beginning 
of the period a stereoscope and stereograph are given 
to every other pupil. Thus 12 students will be do- 
ing field work with the stereoscopes and stereo- 
graphs at any one time. The other 12 will be busy 
with their Guides and note books, either preparing 
for the study of one of the stereographed scenes or 
recording observations already made. At the end of 
every few minutes the stereographs with the stereo- 



18 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

scopes are passed to the pupils who in the meantime 
have been busy with their note books and Guides. 

As the Position List shows (pages 37-66), the 
geography of the world is taken up under the heads 
of the leading countries, important cities or features 
of the great countries, and industries. The studies of 
these countries or sections or industries are divided 
under sub-heads each of which is suitable for study 
during one class period, as the Industries of New 
York, its Sky Scrapers, and its Street Life; People 
and Homes of China, its Surface Features and 
Waterways. 

The study for each of these sub-heads is based 
upon a supply of 12 stereographed scenes (the 
equipment as pointed out above for a section of 24 
pupils during one class period). This unit or group 
of 12 stereographed scenes is made up in a certain 
number of different ways. 

One stereographed scene — 12 duplicates. 

Two different stereographed scenes — 6 dupli- 
cates each. 

Three different stereographed scenes — 4 dupli- 
cates each. 

Four different stereographed scenes — 3 dupli- 
cates each. 

Six different stereographed scenes — 2 duplicates 

each. 

There are also several irregular groups: 
Two different stereographed scenes, 8 dupli- 
cates of one and 4 duplicates of the other. 

Three different stereographed scenes, 8 duplicates 
of one and 2 each of the others, etc. 



INTRODUCTORY 19 

The reason for making up this unit of 12 stereo- 
graphs in these different ways is the varying rich- 
ness of the scenes. Some stereographs con- 
tain such an abundance of geographical facts that 
not even an entire study period is sufficient to ex- 
haust them. 

As will soon appear, the intervals between ex- 
changes of stereographs during a class period will 
vary somewhat according to the number of the dif- 
ferent stereographs included in these groups of 12. 

Inasmuch as these different groups of 12 stereo- 
graphs form such a distinctive part of this system, 
it has seemed wise to adopt the following terms that 
can always be used in referring to them. We give 
also the number of each group used. (Here we 
introduce the word. Position, in the place of ^'Stereo- 
graph"). 

9 One-Position-Groups. 
6 Two-Position-Groups. 

1 2 Three-Position-Groups. 

1 8 Four-Position-Grqups. 

1 4 Six-Position-Groups. 

1 Irregular Two-Position-Group. 

6 Irregular Three-Position-Groups. 

2 Irregular Four-Position-Groups. 
I Irregular Seven-Position-Group. 

It IS desirable that every school, or at least a group 
of schools, should purchase several stereographs of 
carefully chosen scenes in full duplicate, that is, they 
should purchase as many duplicates of the stereo- 
graphs as there are members in a class. Such an 
outfit enables a teacher to direct every step in the 



20 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Study of such scenes, since every pupil can make 
observations from the same standpoint throughout 
the lesson. Thereby the students may be trained to 
use the stereoscope profitably without oversight. 

Under the heading ''Positions to be taken by the 
Pupils/' a comprehensive title-list states the number 
of duplicates of stereographs required in each of the 
Position-Groups for a class section of standard size. 
The stereographed scenes used in connection with 
the supplementary or Library Reference work re- 
ferred to on page 32, are likewise included in the 
list of Positions, pages 37-66. Only one copy each 
of these stereographs is required. 

To make very clear the way in which these differ- 
ent Position-Groups are used in the class, as well as 
the way the plan can be modified in classrooms of 
different sizes and arrangements, we have worked 
out the following diagrams or charts. First are 
given charts of a schoolroom containing 48 seats, 
arranged in 8 rows of 6 seats each. The first five 
charts show the way the five regular Position- 
Groups are used in this schoolroom. The 6th and 
7th charts illustrate the way the irregular Position- 
Groups are used. The 8th to the 12th charts show 
the way the five regular Position-Groups are used 
in a schoolroom containing 40 seats, arranged in 8 
rows of 5 seats each. The 13th and 14th charts 
illustrate the way the Position-Groups are to be 
accommodated to schoolrooms with irregular ar- 
rangements of seats. 



INTRODUCTORY 



21 



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Pupils work in groups of two. Stereo- 
graphs and stereoscopes passed along 
every 2^ or 5 minutes during a class 
period of 30 minutes. For class periods 
of greater or less lengths, intervals for 
study of the stereographs must vary in 
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IZI IZ] IZI [£]| 

^Lij [3 m H ^ 


j Teachers 1 





a. b and c= three different stereographs, 
of which there are 4 duplicates each. 

x== intervals for use of Guides or note 
books. 

Pupils work in groups of six. Stereo- 
graphs and stereoscopes are passed 
along every 2^ or 5 minutes during a 
class period of 30 minutes. 



a, b, c and d=four different stereo- 
graphs, of which there are 3 duplicates 
each. 

x= intervals for use of Guides or note- 
books. 

Pupils work in groups of eight. Stereo- 
graphs and stereoscopes are passed 
along every, 3|- minutes during a class 
period of 30 minutes. 



22 



GEOGRAPHY THEOUGEi THE STEREOSCOPE 



i 


;. 48Seatiog8. Six-Position-Group. 


J 

; 

> 


□ □□□□□ 

□ □□□□□ 

□ □□□□□ 

□ □□□□□ 

CEi m m. iz] m czi 


< 

V 


Jim m [Z].?[i] m s 
ti E m^ m (zi e' 




1 Teacher- 8 
PATENT APPLIf n FOB L ^^^ ,. 



6. 4$Seatiugs. 
Irregular Tliree-Position-Group. 



□ 


□ 


□ □ □ 


n 


n 


1 1 


□ □ □ 


1 1 


1 1 


□ 


□ □ □ 


□ 


□ 


□ 


□ □ 


1 1 


n 


1^ 


|o| 




El 


m 


[3 


E 
L^ 




[3 


Q [E| 


m 


m H'^ 


LiJ 


_^ 


PATENT APPLIED FOB 


Teacher's 
Desk 





a, b, c, d, e and f= six different stereo- 
graphs, of which there are 2 duplicates 
each. 

x= intervals for use of Guides or note- 
books. 

Pupils work in groups of twelve. Stereo- 
graphs and stereoscopes are passed 
along every 2\ minutes during a class 
period of 30 minutes. 



a, b and c= three different stereogrnrhs, 
of whinh thtre are 6 duplicates oi a 
and 3 duplicates eaci; of b and c. The 
method of use is the same as shown in 
No, 4. only a is seen twice as often as 
b and c. 



7. 48Seatings. 
Irregular Four-Position-Gronp. 



□ 


□ 


□ □ 


□ 


n] 


□ 


□ 


□ □ 


1 1 


n 


a 


□ 


□ □ 


u 


□ 


□ 


n 


n n 

|jiJ.,LiJ 
[Ei]'''ci] 


n 


u j 


m 


Lil* 1 


LjlJ 


hi 


Pit 


PATENT AF 


m 




H 


.-•LIED FOR 


Q 


_pi J 


Teacher's 
Desk 



a b, c and d=four different stereo- 
graphs, of which ther? are 4 duplicates 
of pa oh. Tho method of use is the same 
as shown in No. 3. only b and c are 
passed together as one stereograph. 



IXTRODUCTORY 



23 



8. 4tO Seatings. One-Position-Gronp. 



9. 40 Seatings. Two-Position-Group. 




1 a i 


j^ 


1 ^ 1 


IH 


1 a 1 


j^ 


1 ^ 1 


UJ 


1 a 1 


\-\ 



ci3~ni s' 



PATEMT APPLIED FOR 



Teacher' 
Desk 



□ □ 

□ □ 



□ □ □ 

□ □ □ 
□_ n^ □ 

W E ]~j_IZ] 



B [It: 

B Clt" 

> — 

PATENT APPLIED FOB I 



PI 






Teacher 'a 
Desk 



The equipment of stereographs and the 
method of use are the same as shown in 
Xo. 1, except that in the second section 
four duplicates of a are not used. 



The equipment of stereographs and the 
method of use are the same as shown in 
No. 2, except that in the second section 
two duplicate sets of the stereographs 
are not used. 



10 



40 Seatings. Three-Position-Group. 11. 40 Seatings. Four-Position-Gronp. 





1 ^ 1 
1 ^ 1 






1 ^ 1 
1 ^ 1 


UJ 




1 ^ 1 
1 ^ 1 






1 ^ 1 

LiJ 


m'l 


PATENT APPLIED FOR 


Teacher's 1 
Desk 1 



^H m' 

Q CEl 

CD ^ 



\ 



n □ □ □ 

□ □ □ □ I 

□ n □ □ I 
I 



1 1 


u 




U| 


m 




1 ^ 1 

1 b 1 




^ 
^i^ 


El 


1 ^ 1 

1 b 1 


loll 

LjlI 


PATENT APPLIED FOR 




^' 


Tea-hel" 6 
Desk 





B', 
B'l 

B I 

^ 

B/ 
B' 



The equipment of stereographs and the 
method of use are th^ same as shown in 
No. 3. except that in the second section 
one of the sets of stereographs is not 
used, and another set is used by a group 
of only four pupils. 



The equipment and method of use are the 
same as shox^n in No. 4, except that in 
one of the groups in the first section a 
monitor will be needed to pass the 
stereographs, as shown by the broken 
line, and in th^ second section one set of 
stereographs "will not be used. 



24 



GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 



18 



40 Seaflngs. Slx-Posttion-Gronp. 



[E [3 B. id] E] 



t! 



(c n [zi .c a 

"Vi l pn ix i^ 

[ z^ m c zii 

, p B E Zl' 

'/e n, [j: E ztjiii 



m 

[Zl 



|Z] 
"El 

b' 

B 
B 
B 
B 



PATENT APPLIED FOR 



Teacher ' 
Desk 



\l 



Q 05 



O Q 
" ZI 

"J n 



ii'Seatlngs - Irregular Arrangement. 

Three-Position-Group. 



CZ] HE] 



Q d] EH. 
Ri nn Fbi 



Q, 



EJ' I 



Teacher's 
Desk 



CE] m iZ]| 

rm nn w \ 

^ m "Of 

' — -=? <- ^ 



B B 



PATENT APPLIED FOR 



The equipment and methoa of use are the 
same as sho^^^l in No. 5, except in the 
second secti-rn one set of the stereo- 
graphs is not U3cd, and the group of 
four pupils use first a and b, then c and 
d, and e and f . 



This chart shows how one of the Position- 
Groups may be used in a schoolroom of 
44 seatings, where two scats are on 
either side of the teacher's desk. The 
equipment and method of use are the 
same as shown in No. 3, except that the 
group of two pupils in the second section 
study a first, then b and c. 



14. 

r 



Seatiners- Irregnlar Arrangement. 
Tliree-Position-Group. 



Xm 


bMb p:' 


B B 


iCZ] E 
^B B 


bJ 


m m. 


J^'j 


m B 


B B 
^B B 


B rm B' 


B |m Bt 


B B 
^B B 

PATENT APPLIED FOR 


B|l 

hi 1 


B B 


ra B > 


|T.^W..| 





This chittrt shows how one of the Position- 
Groups is used in a classroom where one 
seat is missing. The equipment and 
method of use are the same as shown in 
No. 3 and No. 10. except that one group 
of five pupils in the first section use one 
set of the stereographs. 



INTRODUCTORY 25 

We believe that by an observation of these 
charts, teachers will be able easily to apply the sys- 
tem to all classrooms. In case any questions do arise 
in particular instances, the publishers will be glad to 
give special attention to them. 

When classes are less than 48 in number, some 
reduction can be made in the equipment ; but unless 
the class numbers considerably less than 48, the re- 
duction possible in the equipment is hardly worth 
considering. 

If a class does not exceed 44, there will be one 
group of two pupils less in each section; hence 11 
duplicates of the One-Position-Groups (see page 
18) will be sufficient. 

If a class does not exceed 40, there will be two 
groups of two pupils and one group of four pupils 
less in each section; hence 10 duplicates of the One- 
Position-Groups and 5 duplicates of the Two-Posi- 
tion-Groups will be sufficient. 

If a class does not exceed 36, there will be three 
groups of two pupils, one group of four pupils, and 
one group of six pupils less in each section; hence 
9 duplicates of the One-Position-Groups, 5 dupli- 
cates of the Two-Position-Groups, and 3 duplicates 
of the Three-Position-Groups will be sufficient. 

When a class does not exceed 36, we advise an 
increase of practically one-half in the regular equip- 
ment, which will permit the whole class to form one 
section. This would mean 18 duplicates of the 
stereographs in the One-Position-Groups, 9 dupli- 
cates each of the stereographs in the Two-Position- 
Groups, 6 duplicates each of the stereographs in the 
Three^Po^ition-Groups, 5 duplicates each of the 



26 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Stereographs in the Four-Position-Groups, 3 duph- 
cates each of the stereographs in the Six-Position- 
Groups. 

It will be apparent that when classes consist of 
only 24 pupils, they will form single sections suf- 
ficiently supplied by the regular equipment. 

It is well for large schools to buy a full equip- 
ment .of 48 stereoscopes. At other times than when 
the whole class is engaged in the study of one stereo- 
graphed scene, this full equipment of stereoscopes 
will supply four classes during the same period. 

III. Further Comments on Aims, Values and 

Methods 

The methods to be followed in the use of the stere- 
oscope accord with the purposes and methods of all 
instruction. For example, in geography the teacher 
aims not only to present geographical facts and to 
secure comprehension of their relations, but also to 
train students to observe life and to perceive the 
nature of its dependence upon physical environ- 
ment. To accomplish this, not only is it necessary 
that pupils be told what to look for, but it is equally 
requisite that, by independent observation and in- 
ference, they should gain power to see and reason 
for themselves. This independent observation and 
reflection by every pupil are greatly needed, not only 
because they make little direct demand upon a teach- 
er's energy, but also because they afiford scope for 
individuality within the graded school system. And 
the stereoscope is peculiarly valuable for these pur- 
poses. It is easily handled. Its intense realivsm 



INTRODUCTORY 27 

offsets the inertia of silent work and awakens a 
student's active niterest. Therefore, while in the 
study of the life of distant lands by means of the 
stereoscope there should at times be personal guid- 
ance by the teacher, there ought to be much inde- 
pendent study. 

In preparation for studying the world through the 
stereoscope it is desirable that a class be trained 
properly. \\'hile the vivid reality of the scenes 
presented does not need to be enhanced by the 
instructor's art, care should be taken that no mis- 
hap or misapprehension mar their impression. The 
pupils must learn just how to use the stereoscope 
to full advantage, before attempting to study a place 
or people that it presents. A realizing sense of 
being bodily present in distant lands is more effec- 
tively secured, too, when pupils are trained by the 
help of maps to think of their surroundings at the 
standpoint they have taken in the field, and accus- 
tomed to realize their position there with reference 
to the points of the compass, to other scenes, and to 
famous places in the same country. While these 
facts are not gone over in detail here, still they are 
very important. 

A teacher should always prepare her class for the 
study of any new land. Xew knowledge is well 
comprehended and' fully appreciated only when 
abundant familiar ideas, closely related to the new, 
are present In the pupil's thought. Therefore fre- 
quent paragraphs of introductory questions are 
given in the Student's Guide, suggesting in outline 
how a teacher should lead her class to recall truths 
already known, that are pertinent to those to be 



28 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

presented. As the preparatory talk progresses, old 
interests in a people and their homeland will be 
awakened, the children will become conscious of the 
existence of important matters about which they 
are not yet informed, and will eagerly turn to the 
new scenes, by means of the stereoscope, for answers 
to their questionings. 

The aim in the study of life and scenery through 
the stereoscope as in actual field w^ork, must be, of 
course, to secure more than mere aimless pleasure; 
the teacher should skilfully direct observation and 
thought to definite ends of value. In field work in 
the home community, no teacher is successful unless 
she has closely studied in advance the actual land 
forms or life activities to be observed by her class. 
So, also, in stereoscopic field work in distant lands, 
a teacher will not be successful until she has gained 
sympathetic entrance to the atmosphere, the spirit, 
of the scenes to be visited, and discovered the really 
important and less obvious truths that she wishes 
to lead her pupils to perceive. The Student's Guide 
which accompanies the stereographs makes a teach- 
er's own preparation easy, but does not obviate its 
necessity. When a teacher has definitely in mind 
the facts that can be observed in a stereographed 
scene, and has determined the causal relations that 
explain them, she is ready to guide her pupils to the 
most profitable study. 

In the course of outdoor study, questions of fact 
turn the eyes of the class afield, while discussion con- 
cerning relations leads all to face the teacher. Sim- 
ilarly, during stereoscopic excursions, many ques- 
tions and answers may be given while the children 



INTRODUCTORY 29 

keep the scene constantly before them, and at other 
times the stereoscopes will be laid down that discus- 
sion may be free. All such details will readily 
adjust themselves, when pupils approach the lesson 
sympathetically and intelligently under the direction 
of an instructor who knows the subjects to be studied 
and possesses skill in teaching. These requisites, 
however, are no more than the essentials of all 
successful school work. 

The aim in instruction is not so much to acquaint 
pupils with individual facts as it is to secure their 
grasp of principles of broad application — general 
truths. This end is to be secured by the study and 
comparison of a number of cases that illustrate the 
one truth. Facts that are subsidiary are neglected 
for the time, and the essentials that constitute the 
generalization are combined into a definite state- 
ment of the principle. To this end the survey 
through the stereoscope of some typical scene should 
be followed, during study periods, by the examina- 
tion of other stereographed scenes of the topics pre- 
sented. 

Independent study by class divisions should be 
systematized according to the instructions given 
beneath the various schoolroom charts in the previ- 
ous section of this introduction. While actual field 
study frequently requires unusual efifort on the teach- 
er's part to secure the orderly attention of all of a 
class to the work before them (because of the 
freedom of movement and of expression natural to 
outdoor life), stereoscopic field study within the 
schoolroom shuts each pupil away from his mates, 



30 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

and places the world before him to enchain his 
interest, thus ensuring order without strain upon 
the teacher. 

The first independent study of the home scenes 
of a school district, and likewise of distant life or 
landscapes by means of the stereoscope should be 
for brief periods; and the requirements imposed 
should be limited, that during the succeeding recita- 
tions the teacher may keep in close touch with the 
class, testing them as to every observation required, 
and ensuring the formulating of sound generaliza- 
tions. Thereby the work may be habitually intense 
and highly effective, and the pupils will acquire right 
habits of study, as useful in their daily walks of life 
as when they view distant scenes through the eyes 
of the stereoscope^ 

The work outlined in the Student's Guide is com- 
prehensive. Sometimes it is more than some classes 
can master in a single study period. When advisable, 
successive studies may be made of one stereographed 
scene, or of a group of related scenes. To facilitate 
this, the questions are often divided into sections, 
those marked (a) treating one topic, those marked 
(b) related to another: so that it may be easy to 
assign only one main topic for one lesson. Ques- 
tions about details of secondary importance are given 
in small type, that pupils may see clearly what should 
be studied as of most importance. Questions re- 
quiring thought rather than observation are enclosed 
within parentheses, when they do not come at the 
close of a paragraph, to make evident at a glance 
what must be studied while the pupil is engaged in 



INTRODUCTORY 31 

observation. Further adaptation of requirements to 
the training and needs of any particular class may 
be arranged, if the teacher will select questions for 
study and direct that these be checked by the pupils 
in their Guides. 

Stereographed scenes that are to be studied by an 
entire class, in unison with the teacher, are chosen 
for the richness of their content. In them are found 
valuable types of geographic forms and activities. 
No such outlook replete with geographic facts can 
be fully appreciated at first sight, for all later study 
of related activities and forms gives a clearer under- 
standing of the truths the first view may present. 
The pupils should therefore return to such types 
whenever consideration of other stereographed 
scenes, reading, or class discussion has given them 
greater insight. Through repeated study, the rich 
suggestiveness of any typical scene will be appreci- 
ated and fully utilized, and the advisability of sup- 
plying outfits that will enable all members of a class 
to study some scenes in unison with their teacher 
will be attested. 

The following chapters, however, more frequently 
direct the study of a subject from a series of posi- 
tions and provide typical stereographed scenes for 
the topic. This is necessary because it is difficult to 
choose single positions whence many important 
geographical facts may be clearly presented. A 
much greater proportion of independent groups are 
advisable and necessary because of the saving of 
expense and because of the great need for training 
children to prepare their lessons without constant 



32 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

supervision — the present practice of some teachers 
to the contrary notwithstanding. A few primary 
stereographed scenes studied in every grade will pre- 
pare the way for most profitable study of many 
groups of scenes, in every year of the course. 

Some pupils have the ability to do more than their 
classmates. Good teachers plan special field work, 
supplementary reading, and other individual assign- 
ments for those pupils. The stronger pupils need 
this maximum of study. Their reports in class en- 
rich recitations and spur their mates to enthusiastic 
work. Such methods afiford the necessary elasticity 
to the prescribed courses of our graded schools. It 
is wise to apply this principle to field work, by means 
of the stereoscope. Two plans provide for its appli- 
cation in this work. The first plan lists stereographs 
under the head of Library Reference Groups. Single 
copies only of the stereographed scenes forming 
these groups need be purchased. They place the 
student in the presence of a much wider range of 
life activities and surroundings and supplement the 
groups purchased for class study by illustrating sub- 
sidiary truths. Abler pupils will have time to study 
them and report. Many others will thereafter seek 
permission to see these scenes after school hours, 
thus reviewing the truths their schoolmates have 
reported and fixing a good measure of the facts the 
scenes present. 

Another plan for supplementary study has been 
provided in the case of some study groups, for ex- 
ample that in the city of London. In addition to 
careful directions for the study of a few typical 



INTRODUCTORY 33 

scenes, a comparatively large number of related 
stereographs are named in small type paragraphs. 
It is designed that single copies of each of these shall 
be bought and placed where the pupils may refer to 
them during free periods as they do to books in the 
class reference library, or to the Library Reference 
Groups just mentioned. Study of the typical scene 
will prepare for intelligent interest in those that 
show how the type varies. These additional stereo- 
graphs will be used much as nearly all stereographs 
were used in school before the publication of this 
Manual and Guide — but, their use being preceded by 
systematic study o'f type stereographs, students gain 
from them far more than was formerly possible. 

Such additional observation lessons are not essen- 
tial to the highly successful use of the few stereo- 
graphed scenes selected for thorough study by all 
pupils. They rather supplement, as we have said, 
fundamental stereoscopic field work, much as sup- 
plementary readers and library books serve to elabo- 
rate the statements of the text book in geography. 

Another reason for giving considerable space in 
the Student's Guide to paragraphs of brief suggestive 
questions in connection with the Library Reference 
Groups is because public libraries are now securing 
generous stereoscopic outfits, which they wish to 
have used eflfectively by the schools. 

Systematic provision for work with these Library 
Reference Groups may be well made. Boxes will 
enable the children to carry a stereoscope and stereo- 
graphs home safely. Often families will purchase 
a stereoscope, and then stereographed scenes studied 



34 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

at school may be visited also from the home, with 
less trouble even than is necessitated in transporting 
books for home use. Stereographed scenes will se- 
cure helpful discussion of school work by older mem- 
bers of a family whom text books fail to interest. 
Still broader studies of the life and surfaces of many 
countries are possible where school or public libraries 
possess the stereoscopic tours with guide books of 
the leading countries of the world now being issued 
by the publishers of this Manual. (Some of these 
tours are referred to in the following pages.) A 
complete set of them would be a valuable addition to 
any school library. 

While the stereoscope is a wonderfully effective 
means for bringing the pupil face to face with many 
phases of geographic truths, this should not result 
in its becoming an end in itself in a teacher's prac- 
tice. The central consideration must be the geo- 
graphic relations to be studied. The stereoscope 
takes its place as one of the most important and 
widely useful of all the means employed to further 
the true end in view. The related use of several 
means of instruction makes everyone more effective. 
During an outdoor lesson in the home field speci- 
mens of minerals or industrial products are not only 
seen, they are taken in hand and examined carefully. 
Similarly a field lesson with the stereoscope gains 
added value when specimens of objects seen therein 
are distributed to the class for study. Many selec- 
tions of literature, whether poetry or prose, are best 
presented amid appropriate natural surroundings, 
for the pupils may then understand an author's 



INTRODUCTORY 35 

thought and share his spirit, and thereby gain insight 
into the beauties of nature. While few teachers 
practice this afield, it is very easy for any teacher 
to take the children into the presence of sublime or 
picturesque scenes by means of the stereoscope, and 
there recite the lines of some genius who has loved 
and understood nature's marvels. Field work by 
means of the stereoscope will give its finest results 
when thus closely associated with observational les- 
sons in home geography, with the study of objects, 
of good maps, of literature, and of geographical 
readers and text books. The stereoscope has great 
peculiar values, and it multiplies the value of all 
other geographical equipment. 

The stereoscope not only teaches much directly, 
but the enthusiasm it awakens for further study is 
remarkable. It gives the most vivid presentation 
possible of important examples of a type in world 
geography, and thus awakens intense interest in a 
topic. It leads most naturally to the use of objects, 
maps, books, and other means for securing further 
knowledge. Work that is both enthusiastic and 
thorough prepares for the best language training. 
Children are eager to talk and ready to write about 
matters which really interest them and which they 
know well. With proper planning of the successive 
steps in the consideration of a subject, a teacher will 
find the indirect gain from the stereoscope to be a 
factor in successful instruction equal in importance 
to the knowledge gained while the stereoscopes are 
in active use. 

Finally, as we have said before, stereoscopic field 



36 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

study is fundamental, not supplementary. It is not 
designed to illustrate attractively the truths stated 
in the text book. Rather, it enables the children to 
discover the most important facts and truths of 
geography by means of their own observations. 
They understand what they have seen and carefully 
studied. They remember novel customs and typi- 
cal landscapes that are impressed upon their own 
vision, although they may easily forget the descrip- 
tions of others in their text books. Field work by 
means of the stereoscope therefore precedes the 
study of the text book. It takes time now given to 
textual study, but it presents truths so clearly and 
impressively, it enables the study of essentials to be 
so thorough — that the text treating subjects studied 
in the field is needed only to summarize and review 
the knowledge gained. Time is saved. The text is 
understood and remembered. 

The following chapters apply the principles above 
stated to the treatment of important typical subjects. 
The scope of geography is so broad that in any 
school course only a comparatively few topics can be 
given full treatment. It will be found that the field 
here opened up is large and rich, and sufficient to 
vitalize the work at every leading stage of the 
course. 



POSITIONS TAKEN BY THE PUPILS 

The numbers in parenthesis following each title show how 
many stereographs are needed in each case by a class of 
forty-eight pupils working in two sections. The figures next 
the margin of the leaf refer to pages in the Student's Guide 
where the study of each subject is outlined. The titles of 
stereographs are here abbreviated for the sake of conve- 
nience. 

NORTH AMERICA 
New York City — 

industries of new york 

Position I. Looking north up West St. page 

{twelve or j or ty -eight) i 

* 'SKY-SCRAPERS" 

Position 2. From Brooklyn Bridge, west {six) 3 

3. From St. Paul Building up 

Broadway {six) 4 

STREET LIFE IN NEW YORK 

Position 4. Broad St. north to Stock 

Exchange {four) 5 

Position 5. Elizabeth St. from Hester St. (/owr) 6 

'* 6. Palatial homes on Fifth Ave. (/o^r) 6 

Library Reference Group 

methods of travel in new york 

Position I R. Herald Sq. and elevated 

railway {one) 7 

** 2 R. New York's shopping dis- 
trict {one) 7 

" 3 R. The great Brooklyn Bridge (on^) 7 

" 4 R. New Jersey ferry-boat. . . . {one) 7 

Niagara — 

general study of the falls — 

Position I. Niagara and its cloud of 

spray {twelve or forty -eight) 9 

COMPARISON OF THE THREE FALLS 

Position 2. "Niagara, thou eternal". . . .{two) 12 

3. Splendor of God's handiwork (^xe;o) 12 

4. American Falls from Can- 

adian side {two) 12 

5. Rock of Ages and Luna Falls {two) 12 

6. Majestically grand — Falls 

from steamer {two) 12 

7. Tireless Niagara — Horse- 

shoe Falls (two) 1 2 

Return to Position i. 13 



no 



o5 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 



PAGE 
ROCK-WALLS OF THE GORGE 

Position 8. Winter's stilled cataracts. . . .{two) 14 

*' 9. The Whirlpool rapids (two) 14 

10. The gorge from Canadian 

side {two) 15 

Six sets of rock-specimens from the gorge 
are desirable. 

THE ACTION OF THE FALLS 

Return to Position 7 15 

' 5 15 

'' 4 IS 

6 16 

8 16 

Position II. The magnificent Horseshoe {two) 16 

RELATIONS OF NIAGARA TO COMMERCE 

Position 12. Boat in the Welland Canal (^^gA^) 17 
'* 13. Loading a great "whale- 
back" {four) 18 

RELATION OF NIAGARA TO MANUFACTURING 

Position 14. Autumn beauty on Nia- 
gara's banks {six) 19 

'* 15. Dynamos, 5,000 horse-pow- 
er (5^;c) 19 

Western Scenery — 

the colorado plateau 

Position I. Sheep raising in Arizona. 

{twelve or forty-eight) 2 1 

THE GRAND CANYON 

Position 2. Gazing into a yawning 

chasm {three) 23 

** 3. The sinuous Colorado {three) 24 

"4. Up the Colorado from 

Pyrites Point {three) 2 5 

'* 5. W. N. W. down river from 

foot of trail {three) 26 

YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK 

Position 6. Wild deer in the Park {three) 29 

7. Wild buffalo {three) 29 

.8. West from Continental 

Divide {three) 30 

** 9. Fort Yellowstone among the 

mountains {three) 30 

YELLOWSTONE FALLS AND CANYON 

Position 10. From Point Lookout to Lower 

Falls {four) 31 

** II. From Point Lookout down 

the river {four) 3 2 

12. From Canyon road to Upper 

Falls {four) ;^^ 



POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 39 



Library Reference Groups 

the colorado plateau page 

Position I R. A wilderness of sand (one) 34 

** 2 R. From Red to San Francisco 

Mountains ' (one) 34 

3 R. Blown asunder by vol- 

canic energies (one) 34 

4 R. Nature's barriers con- 

quered (one) 34 

HOT SPRINGS AND GEYSERS AT YELLOWSTONE PARK 

Position 5 R. Cleopatra terrace and pools(on^) 35 
6 R. How a spring begins to 

build (one) 3 5 

** 7 R. A mountain of "petrified 

water" (one) 35 

** 8 R. Sunrise in Yellowstone 

Park (one) 3 5 

9 R. "Black Growler" (one) 35 

'* 10 R. The most famous sight — 

"Old Faithful " (one) 35 

" II R. Peering into the crater .. (one) 35 
" 12 R. Fantastic beauty of "Lone 

Star " (one) .35 

THE YOSEMITE VALLEY 

Position 13 R. From Inspiration Point, .(one) 36 
" 14 R. El Capitan, a granite 

mountain (one) 36 

15 R. North Dome, Half Dome, 

etc (one) 36 

" 16 R. Nearly a mile straight 

down (one) 3 6 

17 R. Nevada and Vernal Falls (one) 36 

18 R. From Cloud's Rest, 

•N. N. E (one) 36 

THE SEQUOIAE BIG TREES OF CALIFORNIA 

Position 19 R. Distant view of "Grizzly 

Giant " (one) 39 

20 R. Grizzly Giant, largest 

living tree (one) 39 

21 R. Throw head back and 

look up (one) 39 

22 R. Vegetable mammoths .. . (one) 39 
'* 23 R. President Roosevelt at 

Wawona (one) 

24 R. U. S. Cavalry on "Fallen 

Monarch " (one) 39 

THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS 

Position 25 R. Natural gatcAvay, Garden 

of the Gods (one) 40 

26 R. Mount of the Holy Cross, (one) 40 



40 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 



PAGE 

Position 27 R. Royal Gorge, Colo (one) 40 

28 R. Railroad loop, George- 
town, Colo (one) 40 

" 29 R. Hunter in Ramshorn 

Mountains (one) 40 

CANADIAN ROCKIES AND THE SELKIRKS 

Position 30 R. First glimpse of the 

Rockies (one) 4 1 

31 R. At the base of Mt. 

Stephen (one) 4 1 

** 32 R. The Illecillewaet Glacier . (ow^) 41 
** 33 R- Placid waters of Lake 

Louise (one) 4 1 

" 34 R- Louise Valley and Mt. 

Victoria (one) 4 1 

*' 35 R- Lake Louise from the 

glacier (one) 41 

Quebec — 

Library Reference Group 
the town as a stronghold and as a port 

Position I R. Best fortified town of west- 
ern world (one) 43 

2 R. Hotel "Chateau Fronte- 

nac" and terrace (one) 43 

** 3 R. Looking up the St. Law- 
rence (one) 43 

*' 4 R. Warships in the St. Law- 
rence (one) 43 

5 R. Quebec, rich in old mem- 
ories (one) 43 

** 6 R. Looking over Louise 

Basin (one) 43 

" 7 R. Birds-eye view of docks, .(one) 43 

Mexico — 

the plateau region 

Position I. Popocatepetl from Puebla . . .(six) 45 
" 2. King of Mexico's moun- 
tains (three) 47 

3. Guanajuato, rich in silver. . . (three) 47 

life in MEXICO — 

Position 4. Natives trading in square, 

Mexico (three) 49 

** 5. Water-carriers at Zacatecas (//tree) " 50 
** 6. Homes on Tehuantepec 

Isthmus (six) 50 

Library Reference Group 

characteristic industries 

Position I R. Extracting pulque (one) 52 

2 R. Natives making rope (one) 52 

** 3 R. Natives weaving matting .(one) 52 



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POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 41 



SOUTH AMERICA 

The Andean Region — 

relief and its effects page 

Position I. Irrigating and planting 

sugarcane {three) 56 

" la. Harvesting sugar-cane (one) 57 

** lb. Picking cotton, Vitarte (one) 57 

Position 2. How the Oroya R. R. fol- 
lows river (three) 5 7 

** 2a. San Bartolome town {one) 58 

** 2b. In the heart of the Andes. . {one) 58 
" 20. Chaupichaca bridge and tun- 
nel {one) 58 

Position 3. Pack train of donkeys and 

llamas {three) 58 

3a. Traveling up among the 

Andes {one) 59 

3b. Coming down El Misti (one) 59 

Position 4. Ice-crested Chimborazo {three) 60 

" 4a. Squad of cavalry on Quito 

road {one) 61 

** 4b. Cotopaxi, highest active vol- 
cano {one) 61 

** 4c. Halt for breath, Pichincha .. (on^) 61 

** 4d. Ice-dealers collecting snow.(on^) 61 
** 4e. Where Pichincha's peak 

rises {one) 6 1 

CITIES AND PEOPLE 

Position 5. Cuzco, once the richest 

city {two) 64 

5a. Center of the equatorial 

Andes {one) 65 

5b. Prosperous and beautiful 

Arequipa {one) 65 

** 5c. Lima, from northeast (one) 65 

Position 6. Selling potatoes — Cuzco. . . .(two) 65 
** 6a. Lima's beautiful cathedral. . (one) 66 
** 6b. Quaint Chaupimarca Square (on^) 66 
" 6c. Government Building, 

Quito {one) 66 

Position 7. Everyday life in Cerro de 

Pasco {two) 66 

•• 7a. Typical architecture in 

Cuzco {one) 67 

7b. Carved balcony and open 

sewer {one) 6 7 

7c. Maldonado St.. Quito (one) 

Position 8. High life and low life, 67 

Guayaquil (two) 68 

** 8a. Home life of a wealthy fam- 
ily {one) 68 

8b. Splendor of President's pal- 
ace, Quito {one) 6S 



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42 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 



PAGE 
Position 9. Up-country hospitality, Rio- 

bamba (tn'o) 69 

" 9a. Houses on stilts, La Clemen- 
tina {one) 69 

Return to Position 8 69 

Return to Position 8a 69 

Position 10. Country housev\-ife grinding 

oats (two) 70 



Library Reference Group 

productions, industries and methods 

Position I R. Har\^esting sugar-cane, 

Santa Clara (one) 72 

" 2 R. Grinding sugar-cane, Santa 

Clara (o'ne) 72 

Return to Position ib 72 

'' 3 R. Weaving cotton, Lima... .{one) 72 
^' 4 R. Work in an old silver- 
mine {one) 72 

" 5 R. Shaft -house, of a copper 

and silver mine {o'^te) 72 

" 6 R. Sheep-raising among the 

Andes {ofte) 72 

7 R. Washing and drying wool (one) 72 



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THE CACAO INDUSTRY 

Position II. Gathering cacao pods, 

Ecuador {three) 74 

** 1 1 a. Gathering cacao pods, Costa 

Rica {one) 75 

** 12. Cacao pod cut open {three) 75 

Return to Position 9a 76 

Position 13. Raking over cacao beans, {three) 76 
*' 13a. Opening cacao pods, Costa 

Rica {one) 77 

** 13b. Gliding up Babahoyo river (one) 77 
** 13c. How the equatorial sun goes 

down {one) 7 7 

" 13d. Way down on Babahoyo 

river {one) 7 7 

** i3e. Guayaquil from Guayas 

river {one) 7 7 

Position 14. Sorting cacao for shipment (^/zr^^) 77 
*' 14a. Queer boats and rafts, 

Guayas river {one) 78 

" 14b. Where donkeys wear 

trousers {one) 78 

** 14c. How imported goods are 

carried {one) 78 



POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 



43 



EUROPE 

Ireland — page 

cottage homes of tenant farmers 

Position I. Denis O'Shaughnessy's h.ome(two) So 

'^ 2. Home in Ballintoy village. ...(^it/o) 80 
" 3. Milking the goat, County 

Monaghan {two) 80 

'' 4. Beehive cottages, County Done- 
gal (two) 80 

'^ 5. Fireplace for burning peat {three) 80 
'* 6. Mansion of Lord Powers- 
court {two) 81 

PKAT 

Position 7. Cutting peat at Allen bog {six) S;^ 

Return to Position 5 84 

Three specimens of peat are desirable. 

Library Reference Group 

street markets and farm products 

Position I R. Cattle-fair, Kanturk. {one) 86 

'* 2 R. The fair — pig market 

day, Kilr-ush {one) 86 

*' 3 R. Market-place at Armagh. . (ow^) 86 
*' 4 R. Market-place of At hlone. . (one) 86 
'' 5 R. Vegetable market, Ath- 86 

lone {one) 

*' 6 R. Hay-market, Galway (one) 86 

" 7 R. Poultry and egg-market, 

Ballybay {one) 86 

Great Britain — 

LONDON — 

Position I. Looking east over dockyard 

district {three) 88 

'' 2. Royal Albert docks {three) 89 

" 2a. Entrance to Royal Albert 

docks {one) 89 

^' 2b. Ocean-liners at Royal Albert 

docks {one) 89 

Position 3 . Northeast down Thames to St. 

Paul's {three) 90 

'' 3a. London Bridge {one) 90 

" 3b. The Tcwer Bridge {one) 90 

'' 3c. The Tower of London (one) 90 

'' 3d. The Bank of England {one) 90 

'^ 3e. The Royal Exchange (one) 90 

'' 3! Hotels Cecil and Savoy .... (cne) 91 

Position 4. Ludgate Hill {three) 91 

'' 4a. Oxford St {one) 92 

" 4b. Regent St {one) 92 

" 4c. Windsor Castle {one) 92 

'^ 4d. Races at Henley (one) 92 



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44 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Library Reference Groups 

government of the british empire page 

Position I R. King Edward receiving 

Lord Mayor's sword. . . . {one) 93 

2 R. Indian Prince doing homage 
to the Queen. {one) 93 

3 R. Princes, nobles and troops 
in review {one) 93 

'* 4 R. Houses of Parliament {one) 93 

^' 5 R. House of Lords {one) 93 

'' 6 R. Governors of an empire (one) 93 

THE SCOTTISH LOWLANDS AND HIGHLANDS 

Position 7 R. Looking from Stirling Castle 

north {one) 94 

" 8 R. From Stirling Castle west, (ow^) 94 
" 9 R. Outlook from Stirling 

Castle N. E {one) 94 

" 10 R. The ''Brig o' Turk" {one) 94 

" II R. Ben Venue, across Loch 

Achray {one) 94 

" 12 R. Oban and hills around 

harbor ^ {one) 94 

EDINBURGH 

Position 13 R. Edinburgh from Calton 

Hill {one) 95 

14 R. Princes St., Edinburgh., .(on^) 95 

15 R. Edinburgh Castle (one) 95 

16 R. Home of John Knox {one) 96 

17 R. The Forth Bridge (one) 96 

The Iberian Peninsula — 

physiography and climate 

Position I. Almeria, its citadel and har- 
bor, Spain {two) 99 

'' 2. The Generalife and Alham- 

bra, Granada {two) 100 

3. Burgos and its cathedral, 
Spain {two) i o i 

4. Mountain paradise of Mont- 
serrat, Spain {two) 102 

" 5. Irrigation of an artichoke 

field, Spain {two) 102 

" 6. Carmelite convent and woods, 

Bussaco, Portugal {two) 103 

BACKWARD CUSTOMS 

Position 7 , Ploughing a hemp-field , Va- 
lencia, Spain {three) 104 

8. How a mule pumps water, 
Cadiz, Spain {three) 105 

9. Old-fashioned ox-team, 
Arteaga, Spain {three) 106 

10. Harvesting in Guipuzcoa, 

Spain {three) 106 



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POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 45 

Library Reference Groups 

cities of the iberian peninsula page 

Position I R. Puerta del Sol, Madrid, 

Spain (one) io8 

2 R. Royal palace, Maidrid, 
Spain (one) io8 

3 R. Throne-room in palace, 
Madrid, Spain (one) io8 

4 R. Barcelona's most popular 
avenue, Spain (one) loS 

5 R. Looking down the Guadal- 
quiver, Seville, Spain. . .(one) loS 

6 R. Castle of St. George and 
Lisbon, Portugal (one) io8 

CORK INDUSTRY 

Position 7 R. Cork oaks at Almoraima. . (one) log 

'^ 8 R. Boiling bark of cork oaks .(one) 109 

'^ 9 R. Scraping and pressing bark(on^) 109 

10 R. Trimming and packing (one) 109 

11 R. Great stacks of cork (one) 109 

France — 

relief and its effects 

Position I. x\utumn in Brittany — thresh- 
ing grain (six) 1 1 1 

" I a. Battleground, Crecy-en-Pon- 

thieu (one) 1 13 

" lb. Pastoral life today at Agin- 

court (one) 1 13 

ic. ''Field of the Cloth of 

Gold" (one) 113 

Position 2. Glacier-covered heights of 

the Pyrenees (three) 114 

^' 2a. In the picturesque Borrigo 

Valley (one) 115 

Position 3. Vineyards covering fields 

at Ay (three) 115 

THE COASTAL BORDER AND RELATED INDUSTRIES 

Position 4. From Grimaldi west over Men- 
tone (three) 117 

" 4a. Monte Carlo's capital, Mon- 
aco (one) 1 18 

4b. The port of Nice (one) it8 

4c. French squadron in harbor, 

Villefranche (one) 118 

Position 5 . Acres of oyster-beds at Can- 

cale (three) 119 

** 6. Vast salt-fields at Le 

Croisic , (three) 120 

" 7. Town and harbor with fish- 
ing fleet, Le Croisic (three) 121 

7a. Home at last, — beach at 

Etretat {one) 122 



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46 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 



PARIS 

Position 8. The favorite drive, Ave. 

Champs Elysees (two) 1 23 

** 9. Avenue Hoche, etc., from 

Arch of Triumph {two) 124 

** 10. Avenue of the Grand Army 

from Arch of Triumph. . . . (two) 124 
" II. Avenue Bois de Boulogne. . {two) 126 
" 12. Eiffel Tower and the Troca- 

dero (two) 126 

" 13. Old City island and the 

Seine {two) 127 

Library Reference Groups 

public buildings, monuments and works of art 

Position I R. Hotel de Ville (City Hall) 

and bridge {one) 128 

** 2 R. Chamber of Deputies, 

■fexterior {one) izS 

*' 3 R. Chamber of Deputies, 

interior {one) 128 

** 4 R. The old cathedral, Notre 

Dame {one) 128 

5 R. The church of the Made- 
leine {one) 1 28 

** 6 R. Dome des Invalides {one) 128 

** 7 R. Sarcophagus of Napoleon (on^) 128 

8 R. The Vendome Column. . . {one) 128 

" 9 R. The Arch of Triumph. . . . {one) 129 

" 10 R. The Venus of Melos {one) 129 

II R. The Winged Victory {one) 129 

** 12 R. A Madonna by Raphael .. (on^) 129 

FRENCH CATHEDRALS 

Position 13 R. Rouen cathedral and the 

town {one) 130 

14 R. West front of cathedral, 
Rheims {one) 130 

15 R. Cathedral interior, 
Rheims {one) 130 

16.R. Amiens, east to the 

cathedral {one) 130 

17 R. Elaboration of the choir- 
stalls, Amiens {one) 130 

18 R. Chartres and its cathe- 
dral {one) 130 

19 R. Beauvais, N. N. W. to 
cathedral . {one) 130 

20 R. Cathedral entrance, 
Bourges {one) 130 

21 R. Memorials of kings in St. 
Denis {one) 130 



POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 47 

Holland — ; 

dikes and holders of holland 

Position I. Quaint costumes at Marken {four) 133 

2. Industrious peasants and 

wind-mill, Dordrecht . . . .{four) 134 

3. Miles of peaceful pastures.. . (/oiir) 135 

Library Reference Groups 

amsterdam and rotterdam 

Position I R. Amsterdam from Zuider 

Kerk (one) 136 

•* 2 R. From Zuider Kerk over 

Market (one) 136 

** 3 R. Looking N. up a tree-lined 

canal (one) 136 

** 4 R. Market-day, bargainers and 

Weigh House (one) 136 

5 R. East across the Oude- 

haven, Rotterdam (one) 136 

** 6 R. The busy Leuvehaven. . . .(one) 136 

VILLAGES OF HOLLAND 

Position 7 R. Everyday business in Volen- 

dam (one) 138 

" 8 R. Huge windmills at 

Zaandyk (one) 139 

** 9 R. Picturesque women at 

Goes (one) 139 

10 R. Cosy homes of fishermen, 

Scheveningen (one) 139 

Belgium — 

cities of belgium 

Position I R. North along the Scheldt, 

Antwerp (one) 1 40 

2 R. East to the cathedral, 

Antwerp (one) 1 40 

*' 3 R. Interior of the cathedral, 

Antwerp (one) 140 

** 4 R. Palace of Justice, Brus- 
sels (one) 140 

** 5 R. The belfry of Bruges (one) 140 

6 R. Dinant beside the Meuse,(on^) 140 

The Scandinavian Peninsula — 

surface features 

Position I. A farmer's family making 

hay, Roldal, Norway. . . .(three) 141 

2 . Planting time near Jonkoping 
Sweden (three) 142 

3. Rista Falls, Jemtland, 
Sw^eden (three) 143 

4. Bergen, west over harbor, 
Norway (three) 144 



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48 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 
FIORDS AND VILLAGES 

Position 5. Odde and the Sorfiord, 

Norway. . . . {twelve or forty-eight) 145 

Library Reference Group 

ports of norway and sweden 

Position I R. Stockholm old and new 

Sweden (one) 147 

** 2 R. Christiania and harbor, 

Norway (one) 147 

** 3 R. Hammerfest, the northern- 
most of towns (one) 147 

** 4 R. Smoking chimneys and 

wharves, Gothenberg. . .{one) 147 

Germany — • 

the rhine valley 

Position I. Castle Stolzenfels, S. E. to 

Oberlahnstein {twelve or forty-eight) 150 

PARTS OF THE RHINE VALLEY 

Position 2. Heidelberg and the Neckar 

river (four) 151 

3. St. Goarshausen, — view N. 

along Rhine {four) 152 

" 4. Ruin Katz and St. Goar, on 

the Rhine {four) 152 

" 5. Cologne and the Rhine, show- 
ing cathedral {four) 153 

LIFE ALONG THE RHINE 

Return to Position 2 154 

Return to Position 3 154 

Return to Position 4 154 

Return to Position 5 155 

REVIEW AND TEST 

Return to Position i 155 

Library Reference Groups 

BERLIN — 

Position I R. Berlin, seat of a Great 

Power {one) 156 

2 R. Home of Kaiser Wilhelm. .(on^) 156 

3 R. New National Gallery from 
Bourse {one) 156 

4 R. Old Art Museum from 
Palace {one) 156 

5 R. Imperial picture gallery in 
Palace {one) 156 

6 R. Bismarck statue and the 
Reichstag {one) 156 

7 R. Hall where German Parlia- 
ment meets {one) 157 

8 R. University Buildings {one) i5f 



POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 49 

Position 9 R. Busy Berlin, — view on 

Konig Strasse (one) 157 

** 10 R. Unter den Linden, from 

Palace (one) 157 

** II R. Rapid transit in Berlin. .. (on^) 157 
** 12 R. Convenience and architec- 
tural beauty (one) 157 

TRANSPORTATION ON GERMAN WATERWAYS 

Position 13 R. Cologne and the River 

Rhine (one) 158 

(same as Position 5 in Class Series) 

14 R. Castle Katz,— N. E. 

across Rhine (one) 158 

15 R. Ancient Magdeburg, S, W. 

across Elbe (one) 158 

** 16 R. Lubeck, east across river(on^) 158 
** 1 7 R. Marketing in Stettin beside 

the Oder (one) 158 

Return to Position 11 R 158 

KIEL CANAL, A TYPE OF SEA-LEVEL SHIP CANALS 

Position 18 R. Ship canal between Baltic 

and North Seas (one) 158 

19 R. Kiel,— N. E. end of the 

canal (one) 158 

** 20 R. Suez Canal, Port Said, 

Egypt (one) 159 

** 21 R. Ship canal, Corinth, 

Greece, N. W (one) 159 

COLOGNE CATHEDRAL 

Return to Position 13 R. Cologne and the 

Rhine •. 159 

Position 22 R. The cathedral at Cologne (one) 159 
^' 23 R. Facade and lower part of 

towers (one) 159 

" 24 R. The nave from the altar, (one) 159 
" 25 R. Looking from cathedral 

spires (one) 159 

GERMAN INDUSTRIES 

Position 26 R. Life on a Saxony farm . .(one) 160 

27 R. Ehrenfels Castle across to 
Bingen (one) 160 

28 R. Women in beet-sugar 
industry (one) 160 

29 R. Stripping willow for bas- 
kets (one) 160 

" 30 R. Where Germany builds 

ships, Stettin (one) 160 

31 R. Berlin Royal Porcelain 

(Paris Exposition) .... (ojte) 160 



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GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 



Alpine Life and Scenery- 
tyrol and savoy 



PAGE 



Position I. The Ortler from Trafoi, 

Tyrol {twelve or jorty-etght) 1 6 1 

2. The picturesque Chamonix 

Valley. . . . {twelve or forty-eight) 164 

GLACIERS 

Position 3. Ice-river of Fiescher Glacier, 

Switzerland {four) 166 

^' 4. Breithorn, Monte Rosa 

group, Switzerland {four) 167 

" 5. The MauvaisPas and Mer de 

Glace {two) 168 

" 6. Ragged masses of Kjendals 

Glacier, Norway {two) 169 

Library Reference Group 



SWISS LAKE scenery 

Position I R. Lake Geneva and Dent du 

Midi {one) 

'^ 2 R. The Axenstrasse, Lake Lu- 
cerne {one) 

" 3 R- Lake Lucerne from the 

Axenstein {one) 

Italy — 

surface features — 



Position I 



The Vatican, N. E. from St. 

Peter's {two) 

Genoa from the Rosazza 

Gardens {two) 

Marble blocks from quarries, 
Carrara {two) 

Birdseye view. of Naples and 
Vesuvius {two) 

Amalfi from the Capuchin Con- 
vent {two) 

Portofino on the Mediter- 
ranean {two) 



ROME- 



170 
170 
170 



172 

174 

174 

175 
176 

176 



Position 7. Rome from dome of St. 

Peter's {two) 178 

8. St. Peter's- and the Vatican. .(^m;o) 178 

9. Sanctuary and home of Art, 
the Pantheon {two) 179 

10. The Roman Forum from 
Capitol {two) 180 

11. The Coliseum {two) 181 

12. Bridge and Castle of St. 
Angelo {two) 182 



POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 51 

VENICE PAGE 

Position 13, The "Bride of the Sq3.'\. {twelve) 183 

STREETS OF VENICE 

Position 14. The Grand Canal (four) 186 

" 15. Venice, "white swan of 

cities" (six) 187 

" 16. A serpentine by-way (two) 188 

Library Reference Groups 

pope pius and the vatican 

Position I R. The Library of the Vatican(on^) 189 

" 2 R. A gallery of statues (one) 189 

" 3 R. The Sistine Chapel (one) 189 

" 4 R. "Bower of St. Anthony". .(on^) 189 
5 R. "The Holy Father is 

speaking" (one) rS9 

" 6 R. Pope Pius bestowing his 

benediction (one) 189 

FLORENCE 

Position 7 R. Florence from San Miniato(on^) 191 
" 8 R. The Duomo, the heart of 

Florence (one) 191 

" 9 R. Palazzo Vecchio and 

square (one) 191 

10 R. Vecchio Bridge and River 

Arno (one) 191 

irR. The Wrestlers, Venus de 

Medici, etc (one) 191 

12 R. In the Pitti Palace gallery (one) 191 



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ST. MARK S, VENICE 

Position 13 R. The Lion from the 

Lagoon (one) 193 

" 14 R. San Marco, a poem in mo- 
saic (one) 193 

" 15 R. Interior of San Marco.. . .(one) 193 

Russia — 

peasant life 

Position I. Making hay in Russia (four) 194 

" 2. A characteristic country- 
house (four) 195 

" 3. Cloth-market, Nijni Nov- 
gorod (four) 196 

SURFACE FEATURES 

Position 4. From Sparrow Hills to Mos- 
cow (three) 198 

5. Floating bridge over Oka, 
Nijni Novgorod (three} 199 

6. Podol portion of old Kief. . . (three) 199 

7. Overlooking salt -fields, Soli- . 
nen . .' .' . .*. .". .* .'p^^^^) 200 



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52 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Library Reference Groups 

st. petersburg page 

Position I R. Riding-school of the Life 

Guards, etc (one) 201 

'* 2 R. Nevsky Prospect, the prin- 
cipal street (one) 201 

3 R. St. Catherine church and 

procession (one) 201 

MOSCOW — 

Position 4 R. Moscow, the pride of the 

Czars (one) 202 

" 5 R. The Kremlin, Moscow. . . .{one) 202 
'^ 6 R. Kremlin wall and tower of 

Sacred Gate (one) 202 

Greece — 

Library Reference Groups 

the land and the people 

Position I R. Modern homes in ancient 

Sparta (one) 204 

2 R. ^'Agamemnon's council 
hall," Mykenae {one) 204 

3 R. Argos and plain S. E. to 
Nauplia {one) 204 

'^ 4 R. The Larisa from market, 

Argos {one) 204 

" 5 R. Ruinsof theatre, 4th century 

b. c, Megalopolis (one) 204 

*' 6 R. North over Pharsala (one) 204 

'^ 7 R. A shepherd and his flock, .(one) 204 
'' 8 R. Shepherds bringing lambs to 

Nauplia {one) 204 

ATHENS 

Position 9 R. Looking N. E. from Piraeus 

to Athens {one) 205 

10 R. Shipping at Piraeus {one) 205 

11 R. Athens and Acropolis 
from Lykabettos {one) 205 

12 R. The Acropolis crowned by 
the Parthenon {one) 205 

13 R. "Earth proudly wears the 
Parthenon" {one) 205 

14 R. From Parthenon over 
modem city {one) 205 

15 R. Looking over Academy to 

Lykabettos {one) 206 

AFRICA 
Egypt — 

the people, the monuments and the desert 

Position I. Ruins of the temple, Sphinx 

and Pyramid {six) 207 



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POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 53 



PAGE 
Position 2 . Second Pyramid from Great 

Pyramid (six) 209 

** 3. From Great Pyramid E. over 

Nile valley (jovir) 210 

THE SPHINX AND THE PYRAMIDS 

Return to Position i 211 

Return to Position 2 212 

CAIRO — 

Position 4. Cairo from citadel to the 

Nile {three) 214 

5. Cairo, S. W. to the Pyra- 
mids {three) 215 

" 6. Citadel, mosque and ceme- 
tery {three) 215 

** 7. A crowded street in Cairo .. (^/tr^^) 216 

IRRIGATION 

Positions. A shaduf lifting water {six) 217 

9. The great dam at Assouan. . .(5i:x:) 218 

Library Reference Groups 

bedouin life 

Position I R. Bedouin village in Libyan 

Desert {one) 220 

THE river NILE WATER-SUPPLY AND NAVIGATION 

Position 2 R. Boats along the Nile {one) 222 

3 R. Market boats of old Cairo {one) 222 

4 R. Nile bridge at Cairo {one) 222 

Central Africa — 

life in central africa 

Position I. Turumu village and people (^/^r^^) 224 

I a. Tying poles for new houses {one) 225 
" lb. Bangala homes near Nouvelle 

Anvers {one) 225 

*' ic. Conical huts of clay {one) 225 

*' id. Ndombe, chief of a tribe ....(one) 225 

Position 2. Upoto blacksmith at work {three) 225 

'* 2a. Man making fish-net {one) 226 

" 2b. Canoes at Yakusu {one) 226 

** 2C. Woman making pottery . . .{one) 226 
" 2d. Women planting sweet pota- 
toes {one) 226 

Position 3. Laborers in a banana field {three) 226 

" 3a. Service at a mission school {one) 227 
*' 3b. Outdoor class at mission 

school {one) 22 7 

" 3c. Bangala people at a mis- 
sion {one) 227 

Position 4 . Carrying rubber and ivory to 

steamer {three) 227 



54 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 



PAGE 
Position 4a. Bringing rubber to a trading- 
post (one) 228 

4b. Native soldiers drilling .... (one) 228 
4c. Rations ready for work- 
men (one) 228 

4d. Market near Wathen (one) 228 



(i 



THE CONGO RIVER 

Position 5. Forest-trail in the heart of 

Africa (two) 230 

5a. Bridge of poles, trail at Yam- 

buya (one) 23 1 

" 5b. Thysville, a center of Euro- 
peans (one) 23 1 

" 5c. Trail and village near Yam- 

buya (one) 23 1 

Position 6. Traveler's supply-caravan. . (^z£;o) 231 
6a. Women carrying luggage ..(one) 232 
- Position 7. Up the lower Congo, below 

Boma (two) 232 

7a. Government house. Banana 

Point (one) 233 

" 7b. Boma, capital of Congo 

Free State (one) 233 

Position 8. Mission stations on Congo 

river (two) 233 

9. Cataracts of Congo river ... (^zyo) 233 
10. Leopoldville on Stanley Pool (^wo) 234 
" loa. Matadi, on the lower Congo (one) 235 
" lob. Train that crosses the 

equator (one) 235 

** II. River steamer landing, Yas- 

aka (two) 23 5 

" 1 1 a. Lukolela wood-post near 

equator (one) 235 

*' lib. River steamer at La 

Romee (one) 235 

lie. Fish-traps in river, 

Stanley Falls (one) 235 



ASIA 

India and Ceylon — 

the people and their surroundings 

Position I . Rice farm amid hills of Cey- 
lon. (two) 237 

" 2 . Country home and rice har- 
vest, Ceylon (two) 238 

** 3. Charming valleys of interior 

Ceylon (two) 238 

" 4. Shawl- weavers in Cashmere, 

India (two) 239 



POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS OO 

PAGE 

Position 5. Wood-carving shop, Simla, 

India (two) 240 

" 6. Native goldsmiths, Kandy, 

Ceylon (two) 240 

HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS AND NORTHERN PLAINS 

Position 7. Snows of Kinchinjanga from 

Darjeeling (four) 242 

" 8. An earthly paradise , — Vale 

of Cashmere (four) 243 

** 9. Benares, N. E. down Gan- 
ges (Jour) 244 

RELIGIONS 

Position 10. Hindus bathing in Ganges, 

Benares (three) 245 

II. Worshippers in temple, Mt. 

Abu (three) 246 

** 12. Mohammedans at prayer, 

Delhi . (three) 246 

*' 13. "There is no god but 

God," Ahmedabad (three) 247 

ELEPHANTS AND THEIR WORK 

Position 14. Plowing a paddy-field, 

Ceylon (four) 248 

** 15. In a timber-yard, India. . ,(four) 249 
" 16. India's princes at the 

Delhi Durbar (jour) 249 

Library Reference Groups 

capturing wild elephants 

Position I R. Stockade before elephants 

were driven in (one) 250 

** 2 R. Tame elephant breaking 

down timber (one) 250 

** 3 R. Above a herd of wild ele- 
phants (one) 25 1 

** 4 R. Stockade after sixty had 

broken out (one) 25 1 

CITIES OF INDIA 

Position 5 R. Chowringhee Roai, N. 

over Calcutta (one) 252 

**' 6 R. Over University, South, 

Bombay (on£) 252 

** 7 R. Substantial elegance of 

modem Madras (one) 252 

8 R. Chandni Chouk, Delhi (one) 252 

*' 9 R. North up Jauhri Bazar, 

Jeypore (one) 252 

** 10 R. S. W. down street of 

shops, Lahore (one) 252 



56 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Ohina — 

THE PEOPLE AND THEIR HOMES PAGE 

Position I. Types of Manchumen, Pek.in^three) 254 

** 2. Pekinese women in a 

wealthy home \ . . {three) 254 

** . 3. Family of the lower class, 

Tientsien {three) 255 

** 4. Canton's "floating" popula- 
tion {three) 256 

SURFACE FEATURES 

Position 5 . From South Gate over Shan- 

hai-Kwan {three) 257 

'* 6. A thoroughfare in the Tartar 

city, Pekin {three) 257 

" 7. Paddy fields at Matin among 

mountains {three) 258 

" 8. Across bay to Kowloon, — 

Hong Kong {three) 259 

PRODUCTS — 

(See Rice and Tea among Industrial Subjects) 

BAMBOO — 

Position 9. Cultivated bamboo at Nan- 
kin {six) 261 

** 10. Giant bamboo near Kandy, 

Ceylon {six) 261 

Twelve specimens of bamboo are desirable. 

THE WATER-WAYS OF CHINA 

Position 1 1 . Picturesque land of Confu- 
cius, Soo Chow {four) 262 

" 12. Junk flotilla on Peiho rvver {four) 263 
** 13. Looking down Chukiang 

river, Canton {four) 264 

Library Reference Groups 

chinese cities 

Position I R. Unchangeable China, caravan 

at Pekin {one) 265 

" 2 R. A busy thoroughfare in 

the Tartar city, Pekin. .{one) 265 
(same as Position 6) 
'* 3 R. Pagoda-gate and people of 

Mukden {one) 265 

'' 4 R. Canton from pagoda onN. 

wall ^ . {one) 2 65 

GREAT WALL OF CHINA 

Position 5 R. Shan-hai-Kwan, east end of 

wall {one) 267 

** 6 R. China's old barrier crossing 

mountains {one) 267 

** 7 R. Looking north along Great 

Wall {one) 267 



POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 57 

Japan — 

surface features page 

Position I . Flailing barley beside Inland 

Sea {three) 268 

" 2. Men shooting Hozu Rapids 

on the Katsura (three) 269 

" 3. Home at foot of Fujiyama, the 

sacred mountain (three) 2 70 

'* 4. Rice fields in crater of Aso 

San (three) 271 

JAPANESE HOMES 

Position 5. South front, home of Count 

Okuma, Tokyo (three) 272 

*' 6. Serene simplicity of Okuma 

home (interior) (three) 273. 

" 7. Charming geishas at dinner (three) 274 
** 8. Girl sleeping with head on 

support (three) 275 

** 8a. Family picnic, Omuro Gosho(on^) 276 
" 8b. Gardens and home of Y. 

'Namikawa (one) 2 76 

Library Reference Groups 

japanese cities 

Position I R. Part of Tokyo's 100 square 

miles (one) 276 

*' 2 R. Asakusa St. with its throngs, 

Tokyo (one) 276 

*' 3 R. West along canal toward 

center of Tokyo (one) 276 

** 4 R. Soldiers leaving Tokyo for 

the front (one) 277 

** 5 R. From Tennoji Pagoda over 

Osaka (one) 277 

** 6 R. A silk store in Osaka (one) 277 

** 7 R. A Buddhist funeral Kyoto (on^) 277 
*' 8 R. Mid-summer traffic in 

Kyoto (one) 277 

TRANSPORTATION IN JAPAN 

Position 9 R. Japanese lady in a yama- 

kago (one) 2 78 

10 R. Burden-bearers in Tokyo (on^) 278 
" II R. Picturesque shops and 

crowds, Yokohama. . . . (one) 278 

12 R. Shiba Canal, Tokyo (one) 278 

13 R. Coaling a steamship, 

Nagasaki (one) 2 yS 

14 R. Ocean steamships, Naga- 

saki (one) 278 

" 15 R. Shijo bridge, Kyoto (one) 278 

" 16 R. The Ginza, a thoroughfare 

of Tokyo (one) 2 78 



58 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

JAPANESE HANDICRAFTS PAGE 

Position 17 R. Vats for mixing clay, 

Kyoto (one) 279 

18 R. Preparing the clsiy ... .{one) 279 

** 19 R. A potter and his wheel.... (on^) 279 

** 20 R. Workmen watching kilns(ow^) 279 
** 21 R. Removing pottery from 

kilns (one) 279 

** 22 R. Decorators at work (one) 279 

** 23 R. Expert workmen on cloi- 
sonne {one) 279 

" 24 R. Pretty factory girls {one) 279 

CHILD LIFE IN JAPAN 

Position 25 R. Big sisters and little 

brothers {one) 280 

** 26 R. Schoolhouse and grounds, 

Yokohama {one) 280 

27 R. The "Lotus Flower," a 

typical game {one) 280 

** 28 R. Schoolboys in Ueno Park(on^) 280 
29 R. A*' tug of war." Ueno Park 

Tokyo {one) 280 

" 30 R. Schoolboys fishing in 

park, Tokyo {one) 280 

** 31 R. Children celebrating a 

feast {one) 280 

** 32 P. Street performer amusing 

a crowd {one) 280 

Korea — 

KOREAN ways 

Position I . Primitive life in the Hermit 



Kingdom (two) 282 

Grist-mill of Korean peasa,nts{two) 283 

A man-power shovel, Seoul. . {two) 283 

House-building in Korea. . . . {two) 284 

Crude industries of Korea. . . (two) 284 
Village gossip in suburb of 

Seoul {two) 285 



Library Reference Group 

cities in korea 

Position I R. Seoul, the capital of Korea (ow^) 287 
** 2 R. Typical houses outside 

Seoul {one) 287 

3 R. Outside the South Gate 

Seoul {one) 287 

4 R. From South Gate N. E. 

over Seoul {one) 287 

** 5 R. Shops and traders, Seoul. . (one) 287 



POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 59 

Position 6 R. Washing and bathing in a page 

sewer (one) 287 

7 R. The Gospel Light in Ko- 

rea (one) 287 

8 R. N. W. along a street in Fu- 

san (one) 287 

" 9 R. West to harbor entrance, 

Chemulpo (one) 287 

Philippine Islands — 

Library Reference Group 
Position I R. Busy Pasig river, Manila. . (o«^) 289 

2 R. Escolta, chief business 

street, Manila (one) 289 

" 3 R. A native home in Ermita..(on^) 289 
*' 4 R. Visayan homes, Island of 

Cebu {one) 289 

INDUSTRIES OF THE WORLD 
Textiles — 

COTTON growing 

Position I I T. Cotton is King: Plan- 
tation in Georgia . . . {twelve) 293 
spinning and weaving — 

Position 2 I T. The Lazzaroni in street, 

Naples {two) 295 

" 3 I T. Spinning flax with a 

wheel, Ireland {two) 296 

" 4 I T. Peasant housewife weav- 
ing cotton, Japan {two) 297 

** 5 I T. Carding-room, mills at 

Columbia, S. C {two) 298 

6 I T. Warping-room, Belfast, 

Ireland {two) 299 

" 7 I T. Plain weaving- room, 

Belfast, Ireland {two) 300 

sheep raising — 

Position 8 I T. Sheep-raising in Arizona {four) 302 
*' 9 I T. Fine results of sheep- 
raising, Michigan {four) 303 

" 10 I T. Sheep-shearing on an 

American ranch (Jour) 304 

Library Reference Groups 

cotton from field to market 

Position I I T R. Cotton in cartloads at 

mill, Texas {one) 306 

** 2 I T R. Cotton-gin separating 

fibre from seed {one) 306 

3 I T R. Baling cotton, — a power- 

ful press {one) 306 



60 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Position 4 I T R. Packing cotton in cyl- page 

indrical bales {one) 306 

" 5 I T R. Apart of the 4,000,000 

bale crop (one) 306 

" 6 I T R. Loading barges with 

cotton {one) 306 

7 I T R. Shipping cotton by 

cars {one) 306 

FLAX AND LIXEN 

Position 8 I T R. Flax curing in fields, 

Belgium {one) 307 

" 9 I T R. Flax soaking in river, 

Belgium .{one) 308 

. *' 10 I T R. Hatcheling flax, 

Belfast, Ireland. . . . {one) 308 
*' II I T R. Damask weaving looms, 

Belfast, Ireland. . . . {one) 308 
** 12 I T R. Bleaching field near 

Belfast, Ireland. . . .{one) 308 

Foods — 

harvesting grain 

Position I I F. Harvesting wheat, Gui- 

puzcoa, Spain {three) 312 

2 I F. Modern harvester in 

Manitoba {three) 312 

" 3 I F. A threshing-floor in 

Palestine {three) 312 

** 4 I F. Wonderful progress from 

flail to thresher {three) 313 

" 4 I Fa. Sacking wheat from 

thresher {one) 314 

TRANSPORTATION OF GRAIN 

Position 5 I F. Wheat for export at 

Odessa, Russia C-^^^) 3^4 

*' 6 I F. Loading steamers from 

elevators, Canada {six) 315 

test; COMPARISON OF METHODS 

Position 6 I F a. Plowing in Plain of 

Sharon {one) 316 

" 6 I F b. Plowing on a farm in 

Illinois {one) 316 

Position 6 I F c. Evolution of sickle and 

flail, Washington ... (on^) 316 

TEA 

Position 7 I F. Coolie tea-pickers at 

work, Ceylon (jour) 318 

8 I F. Girls picking tea, Uji, 

Japan {four) 3 18 

*' 9 I F. Unloading tea, Hankow, 

China {four) 319 



POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 61 



RICE PAGE 

Position lo I F. Filipino rice-field and 

water buffalo {three) 321 

" II I F. Pulling up young rice, 

Japan {three) 321 

*' 12 I F. Transplanting rice in 

Japan {three) 322 

" 13 I F. Cutting and sheaving 

rice, Japan {three) 322 

Library Reference Groups 

RICE IN the united STATES 

Position I I F R. Harvester cutting rice, 

Texas {one) 324 

2 I F R. Hauling rice to thresher, 

Texas {one) 324 

** 3 I F R. Steam thresher at work, 

Texas {one) 324 

4 I F R. Modern methods in the 

field, Texas {one) 324 

GRAZING AND MEAT PACKING 

Position 5 I F R. A cattle round-up in 

Arizona {one) 325 

6 I F R. Spring "round-up," 
iVrizona {one) 325 

7 I F R. Cowboys examining a 
brand . {one) 325 

8 I F R. How grass is turned 
into beef {one) 325 

9 I F R. Union Stock Yards, 
Chicago {one) 325 

10 I F R. Cooling-room, Armour's 

packing-house {one) 325 

CORN AND PORK 

Position 1 1 I F R. In the great cornfields, 

Kansas {one) 326 

*' 12 I F R. Twentieth century har- 
vesting, Mich {one) 326 

" 13 I F R. Genuine corn-fed pork, 

Illinois (one) 326 

*' 14 I F R. A half-mile of pork, 

Chicago {one) 326 

FISHING 

Position 15 I F R. Seining for salmon, 

Oregon {one) 327 

*' 16 I F R. Seining chenook salm- 
on, Oregon {one) 327 

17 I F R. A pot full of fish, 

Oregon {one) 328 

18 I F R. Brailing — taking from 

trap, Oregon {one) 328 



62 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Position 19 I F R. What *' captains cour- page 

ageous " bring home (on^) 328 
20 I F R. **Fish out of water," {one) 328 

WHALING 

Position 2 1 I F R. Whalers Diana and 

Nova Zembla (one) 328 

** 22 I F R. A veteran harpooner.(ow^) 328 
'* 23 I F R. Loading flippers and 

blubber (one) 328 

24 I F R. Whaling in Baffin 

Bay (one) 328 

FRUIT RAISING IN CALIFORNIA 

Position 25 I F R. Redlands and S. Ber- 
nardino valley .... {one) 329 

** 26 I F R. Irrigating an orange 

grove {one) 329 

** 27 I F R. Picking oranges, 

Riverside {one) 329 

SUGAR IN AMERICA 

Position 28 I F R. Plantation and sugar 

mill Cuba {one) 330 

29 I F R. Cutting sugar cane, 
Cuba {one) 330 

30 I F R. Hauling cane to mill, 
Caguas. {one) 330 

31 I F R. Evaporators for beet- 
juice {one) 330 

32 I F R. Diffusion batteries for 
beet-sugar {one) 330 

33 I F R. Centrifugals for sepa- 
rating sugar {one) 330 

/ 34 I F R. Sugar levee in New 

Orleans {one) 330 

COFFEE — 

Position 35 I F R. Coolies picking coffee, 

Ceylon {one) 331 

'* 36 I F R. Coffee on drying- floors, 

Mexico {one) 331 

'* 37 I F R. Drying coffee in Porto 

Rico {o7te) ^^ I 

38 I F R. Crude method of 

husking coffee. . . .{one) 331 

BANANAS 

Position 39 I F R. In the heart of a 

plantation, Hawaii (ow^) 332 
. *' 40 I F R. Largest banana field, 

Costa Rica {one) 332 

** 41 I F R. Among finest bananas, 

Costa Rica {one) 332 

..-.*-' 42 I F R. Young banana plants, 
-'•.J .... . . • Porto Rico (one) 332 



POSITIONS TAKEX BY PUPILS 63 

Position 43 IF R. Carrying to market, page 

Jamaica {one) 332 

44 I F R. Indian "dug-outs," 

Panama {one) 332 

TOBACCO 

Position 45 I F R. Typical tobacco plan- 
tation, Cuba {one) 333 

" 46 I F R. Largest tobacco field, 

Jamaica {one) ^^^ 

Mining and Manufacturing — 

lake superior mines 

Position I I M. Miners in underground 

drift {four) 335 

1 I Ma. Copper ore hoisted up 
shaft {one) 335 

2 I M. Open-pit mining at 
Hibbing {four) 335 

3 I M. Digging iron ore with 
steam-shovels (fotir) 336 

3 I Ma. Stripping surface 

earth {one) 337 

3 I Mb. Five-ton steam shovel 

crew {one) 2)3 7 

TRANSPORTATION OF ORES 

Position 4 I M. Docks with two miles 

frontage, Michigan . . {two) 338 
5 I M. Pockets of iron ore on 

dock, Michigan {two) 339 

** 6 I M. Lake steamer loading 

with ore, Minnesota., {two) 340 
*' 7 I M. "Down-lockage "in canal, 

— the Soo {two) 340 

*' 7 I Ma. Looking W. over locks, 

Soo Canal {one) 341 

7 I Mb. '*Up-lockage" for 

freighters Soo Canal {one) 341 
** 7 I Me. Whaleback freighters, 

Soo Canal {one) 341 

7 I Md. *' Down-lockage for 

freighters, Soo Canal {one) 341 
7 I Me. North from Michigan 

side, Soo Canal {one) 341 

Position SIM. Unloading an ore steamer, 

Cleveland {two) 342 

9 I M. Piles of iron ore at Con- 

neaut {two) 342 

** 9 I Ma. Electric unloader lifting 

5 tons {one) 343 

** 9 I Mb. Unloading, — new method 

and old {one) 343 



64 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Position 9 I Mc. Docks, switchyards and page 

buckets^ (one) 343 

" 9 I Md. Hulett unloader hand- 
ling 10 tons {one) 343 

IRON AND STEEL 

Position 10 I M. Steel Works at Home- 
stead, Pennsylvania (four) 345 

** II I M. Red-hot iron from blast 

furnace {four) 346 

** 12 I M. Beam of red-hot steel in 

mill . / {four) 347 

Library Reference Groups 
coal and coke 

Position I I M R. Mining three miles 

underground {one) 349 

" 2 I M R. Dinner underground 

with safety lamps. . {one) 349 
" 3 I M R. Down in a soft coal 

mine {one) 349 

" 4 I M R. Coke ovens near Al- 

toona {one) 349 

COPPER MINING 

Position 5 I M R. Loading surface ore, 

Arizona {one) 350 

6 I M R. Drilling ore under- 
ground, Arizona. . . {one) 350 

7 I M R. In the mountain's 
heart, Arizona {one) 350 

8 I M R. Inclines to the copper 
mines, Arizona {one) 350 

9 I M R. Detroit Copper Co. 's con- 
centrator, Arizona., (ow^) 350 

10 I M R. Climbing last loop on 

railway, Arizona . . . {one) 350 

GOLD MINING 

Position II I M R. Prospecting for gold, 

Arizona {one) 351 

12 I M R. Gold mine at Hunker 

Creek, Klondike, .{one) 351 

" 13 I M R. Gold miners at work, 

Klondike {one) 351 

" 14 I M R. In an ore-crushing 

mill, S. Africa. . . .{one) 351 

" 15 I M R. Precipitating vats, Jo- 
hannesburg, S . Af r. {one) 351 

PLATE GLASS MANUFACTURE — 

Position 16 I M R. In the glass works, 

Tarantum, Pa. . . . {one) 352 
** 17 I M R. Drawing pot from fur- 
nace ,Tar antum , Pa. {one) 352 



POSITIONS TAKEN BY PUPILS 65 

Position i8 I M R. Rolling sheets of glass, page 

Tarantum, Pa. . . . {one) 352 
" ig I M R. Grinding surface of 

glass, Tarantum, Pa(on^) 352 
20 I M R. Finishing plate glass, 

Tarantum, Pa. . . . {one) 352 

Lumbering — 

big trees of california 

Position I I L R. Cutting down big trees, 

Converse Basin. . . {one) 353 

" 2 I L R. Ending a life of centur- 

ies , Converse B asin {one) 353 

'* 3 I L R. Stump whe^e a forest 

giant stood {one) 353 

** 4 I L R. Blast rending section 

of tree. {one) 353 

" 5 I L R. Hauling sections on 

skids {one) 353 

6 I L R. Saw-mill in Big Tree 

district {one) 353 

FROM FOREST TO LUMBER YARD 

Position 7 I L R. Flat-cars loaded with 

logs, Cal {one) 354 

8 I L R. Poling logs in a mill- 
pond, Cal {one) 354 

'* 9 I L R. Nashwaak river. New 

Brunswick {one) 354 

** 10 I L R. Sorting logs for mill. 

Wis {one) 354 

** II I L R. Scouring logs at mill, 

Minn {one) 354 

" 12 I L R. Piles of lumber season- 
ing, Minn {one) 354 

TAR AND TURPENTINE 

Position 13 I L R. Gathering crude tur- 
pentine, N. C {one) 355 

14 I L R. Distilling turpentine 
from resin, N. C. . {one) 355 

15 I L R. Sweating out tar from 
pine wood, N. C. . {one) 355 

16 I L R. Free and happy life in 
the Sand Belt, N.C.{one) 355 

17 I L R. Typical negro home 
in Sand Belt, N. C.{one) 355 

18 I L R. Greatest resin market, 
Georgia (one) 355 

Quarrying — 

Position I I Q R. Blasting granite at 

Cape Ann, Mass. ..{one) 356 



66 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Volcanoes — 

VOLCANIC CONES PAGE 

Position I V. Birdseye view of Naples and 

Vesuvius (six) 357 

(same as Position 4 in Italy) 
*\ 2 V. Snow-capped Fuji the 

superb, Japan {three) 358 

** 3 V. Mount Hood from Lost 

Lake, Oregon {three) 3 59 

VOLCANIC PHENOMENA AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES 

Position 4 V. A terrible volcanic explo- 
sion, Mont Pelee {two) 359 

'* 5 V. Gazing through sulphurous 

vapors, Aso San {two) 360 

** 6 V. Stones and lava thrown up- 
ward, Hawaai {two) 3 60 

7 V. Over dead St. Pierre to 
Mont Pel6e {two) 361 

8 V. Scientists exploring St. 
Pierre {two) 361 

9 V. The forum of Pompeii and 
Vesuvius (two) 362 



iC 



<< 



THE PLAN OF CATALOGUING 

We have adopted a simple system to aid schools 
in cataloguing the stereographs upon which this 
work is based. The stereographs provided for class 
study are numbered in the Guide, in the order in 
which they appear under the heads of the dififerent 
countries or important sections. 

Then on the back of each of the stereograph 
mounts, in the upper right-hand corner, is given the 
name of the country or section to which the stereo- 
graph belongs, together with its serial number, and 
''School Position" in parenthesis, as, for example, 
"(i) New York City (School Position)." Any 
numbers that may appear in connection with the title 
on the front of the stereograph are to be ignored in 
using or cataloguing the school stereographs. 

Stereographs used in the Library Reference 
Groups under the heads of the different countries or 
sections are numbered in the Guide separately from 
the stereographs for regular class use, and have the 
letter R added to their serial numbers. On the backs 
of the stereographs the word ''Reference" is added, 
as "(i) New York City — Reference (School Posi- 
tion)." 

All the stereographs used under the heading, "The 
Industries of the World" have the letter I added to 
the numbers in the Guide. The Industries are 
studied under the headings. Textiles, Foods, Mining 
and Manufacturing, Lumbering, and Quarrying. 
Stereographs used in each of these divisions are 
numbered separately. The stereographs used in the 



68 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

study of Textiles have the letter T added in this 
book to the letter I and the serial numbers; those 
used in the study of Foods, have the letter F added 
to the letter I and their serial numbers; those used 
under Mining and Manufacturing have the letter 
M added to the letter I and their serial numbers. 
Stereographs relating to Lumbering (including the 
extraction of Tar and Turpentine) add the letter L 
to the I and the serial numbers. The stereographs 
used in the Library Reference Groups under these 
various heads have the letter R added to the other 
letters and their serial numbers. 

The titles appearing on the backs of these stereo- 
graphs are, for instance, ''(i) Industries — Textiles 
(School Position)," ''(i) Industries — Foods 
( School Position) ,'' '' ( i ) Industries — Textiles — 
Reference (School Position)," etc. 

The classification of Whaling along with Fisheries 
in general brings it somewhat incongruously under 
the head of Food Industries, but, for the sake of 
avoiding elaboration, this will doubtless be par- 
doned. 

The stereographs used in the study of Volcanoes 
have the letter V added to the serial numbers in this 
book, and the word Volcanoes given in full on the 
backs of the stereographs. 



NORTH AMERICA 

NEW YORK CITY 

The industries, the tall buildings and the street 
life of New York are studied from six Positions. A 
Library Reference Group of four Positions covers 
methods of travel. All together, these afford a very 
comprehensive view of New York City. 

It is important, in beginning the study of every 
topic, and in connection with each Position, for the 
pupils to locate their standpoints on the map with 
some care. For the study of New York City a spe- 
cially prepared map has been provided. Information 
concerning the value and use of these patented maps 
is given on page xxi, in the Student's Stereoscopic 
Field Guide. The teacher is urged to make sure 
that the pupils are trained in the intelligent use of 
this device. 

The text on New York City in the Tarr and Mc- 
Murry Geography of North America, and the topic 
Cities in the section entitled Summary and Con- 
clusion, will be found helpful both to teachers and 
pupils. For the teacher Brigham's Geographic In- 
Huences in American History, pp. 25 and 26, will 
prove suggestive and stimulating. 

The Metropolitan Line, seen from the West street, 
or first, Position, is used principally for freight. 
Travelers and business men cannot afford the time 



70 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

required to make the trip around Cape Cod. This 
point can be brought out in the recitation. Most of 
the craft upon the river are freight or passenger 
ferry boats. Some of the smallest are tow boats. 
Freight cars are transferred between the Jersey City 
terminals of the railroads and New York upon flat 
scows, like the one seen over the end of the w^harf. 
From the second Position, ''From Brooklyn Bridge, 
west," one of these scows can be seen just coming 
into sight from the left. B. T. Babbitt, seen on a 
building from the first Position, is the name of a 
soap manufacturer. 

The tall buildings seen from the second Position, 
''From Brooklyn Bridge, west," are used principally 
for offices. That section of the city is distinctively 
the wholesale trading center. (See Tarr and Mc- 
Murry.) Tall buildings are a necessity in New 
York both geographically and economically. Sur- 
rounded by water on three sides there is no oppor- 
tunity to spread out and land is, therefore, so ex- 
pensive that lofty structures containing a great many 
offices are necessary, in order for the landlord to re- 
ceive a profitable return upon his investment. 

From our fourth Position, in Broad street, the 
Sub-Treasury is the low Doric building in the dis- 
tance facing us. The lowest of the near buildings 
on our left with pillars in front is the Stock Ex- 
change. The Sub-Treasury stands at the 
corner of Broad and Wall streets, that is. Wall street 
runs in front of the Sub-Treasury. The United 
States keeps a large amount of money in the Sub- 
Treasury. The banking house of J. P. Morgan & 
Co. is the last building on our right, the building 



NEW YORK CITY 71 

nearest to the Sub-Treasury. Wall Street is one of 
the most important financial centers of the world. 
Immense loans of money are obtained on Wall 
Street and ventures involving millions of dollars 
are planned and consummated by the men whose 
places of business are located there. In the Stock 
Exchange bonds, railroad and bank stocks and 
shares in mines and factories are bought and sold 
every day. The street just in front of us where you 
see the crowd of men is the ''Curb'' market, w^here 
stocks are sold on the street. 

Elizabeth street is a type of the tenement house 
district. The houses are occupied by a great many 
people. Each family perhaps has only a single room 
and in some cases it is said that in that space two or 
three families live. The fire escapes on the fronts 
of the houses are required by law. The street ped- 
dlers sell vegetables, bread, toys, small wares and 
drygoods. (See Xew York State Supplement to 
Tarr and McMurry's Geography.) 



NIAGARA 

From Position i we get a birdseye view and 
make a general study of Niagara. This is suggest- 
ed for complete duplication. From Positions 2, 3, 
4, 5, 6, and 7, we study and compare the several 
falls; from Positions 8, 9 and 10, 'The Rock Walls 
of the Gorge.'' For a study of *'The Action of the 
Falls/' we return to Positions 7, 5, 4, 6, 8, and take 
a new Position, 11. We study Niagara's *'Rela- 
tions to Commerce'^ from Positions 12 and 13; Ni- 
agara's ''Relations to Manufacturing," from Posi- 
tions 14 and 15. Most of the Positions are located 
on the map in the Student's Guide. If the six sets of 
rock specimens, referred to on page 14 be not used 
when studying the walls of the gorge, four duplicate 
stereographs each for Positions 8, 9 and 10 will be 
needed. If a school system prefers to treat the influ- 
ence of Niagara upon commerce and manufacturing 
as one topic, with one observation lesson, but three 
duplicates for Positions 12 to 15 should be secured. 

Renowned scenery as observ^ed through the stereo- 
scope afifords opportunity for systematic drill that 
will vigorously train the powers of observation and 
memory. When the recitation period arrives, ask 
the pupils to shut their eyes and call to mind what 
they saw from the first Position. Ask one, then 
another, to describe the view. So continue with 
succeeding Positions. This will give practice in the 
vivid expression of observations also. 

The class should return to the central standpoint 
(Position i), giving the birdseye view, at several 



NIAGARA FALLS 73 

Stages of the work. The falls are studied from 
other Positions repeatedly also. The teacher should 
not expect too much from the class during the ear- 
lier recitations. Far more may be observed from 
each standpoint than can be noted or understood at 
first sight. Some lines of questioning are started 
early, to direct observation and thought, which the 
class should not be pressed to answer fully until the 
work closes. For instance, when comparing the 
three falls the pupils are asked as to the effects of 
a less or greater volume of water upon conditions at 
the foot of the falls (p. 13), but the question will 
not be discussed at length until viewed in the light 
of further knowledge (p. 15, Position 4). 

A more thorough study of Niagara is provided 
than can be undertaken wisely in lower grades — the 
fifth or sixth; the more difficult topics and lines of 
thought should be deferred until the United States 
IS studied for the last time in an upper grade. 

The central standpoint gives a comprehensive 
foundation view. The level horizon shows that the 
undulating plain of woodlands and fields extends be- 
yond our vision. The Niagara Valley above the falls 
appears broad and shallow, as befits a river flowing 
down a gentle slope. How small the objects on the 
farther river bank look! The steep slope from near 
the railway embankment on the plain down to the al- 
most level land in the narrow Victoria Park suggests 
that the upper river has here removed glacial deposits 
down to the underlying rock. Into this the gorge is 
sharply cut, narrow, deep and walled by vertical 
cliffs with slopes of fallen rocks at their foot. Up- 
stream the shallow waters slip or plunge from ledge 



74 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

to ledge : in the gorge the steamer rides on currents 
whose tortuous Hnes of foam reveal the tumultuous 
heaving of depths mightily stirred by the falling 
floods. Recognize Niagara as a sublime spectacle. 
Let the pupils catalogue its scenic features; the 
mighty falls curtained by a wind-blown drapery of 
mists, the far horizon and o'er-arching heavens, the 
darkly wooded islands, and the flashing foam of 
broken waters. 

Studies of the scenery of the falls follow under the 
topic, '*The Falls.'' The map shows the bend of the 
river at the falls, and thus one cause for the large vol- 
ume of water over the Canadian Falls, for the current 
presses ever forward and swings against the curve 
of the Canadian bank. Except at the deep center of 
the Canadian Falls the water drops from the irregu- 
lar, broken verge of the cliffs in separate masses, or 
plunging rockets, because the steplike ledges above 
the falls throw the water into waves and the air 
resistance tends to break the falling water into spray. 
The broken waters, mingled with air, scatter the 
light rays reflected from their surfaces and appear 
white in the falls and spray and where the bubbles 
boil up from the depths of the restless pool. This 
and the preceding paragraph suggest the descriptive 
summary that the teacher should give or secure from 
the class at the close of the discussion of their ob- 
servations. 

For the study of the "Rock Walls of the Gorge." 
a half dozen sets of labeled rock specimens, crumbly, 
thin-bedded shale and massive Niagara and Tren- 
ton limestones, may be secured by any school if the 
aid of friends about to visit Niagara is enlisted.^ 



NIAGARA FALLS 75 

Limestones and shales from other sources, however, 
may be substituted. They will materially aid the 
pupils to infer that as the weak shales w^eather, the 
resistant limestone beds are gradually undermined, 
until blocks fall and leave a vertical cliff face, above 
the steep slopes of crumbling shale. The cause of 
the recession of the falls is so well presented in 
many accessible books that it needs no discussion 
here. 

Teachers should prepare for directing class dis- 
cussion of the two exercises on the history of Ni- 
agara, ''Rock Walls of the Gorge" and 'The Action 
of the Falls,'' by studying accounts of water action 
and valley forms in the best physical geographies, 
such as those by Tarr, Davis, Gilbert & Brigham, or 
Dryer, and in Gilbert's little monograph on Niagara 
Falls (American Book Co.). Only simple truths of 
first importance, however, should be considered with 
the class. 

Teachers will find the life relations of Niagara, 
such as are taken up in our topics, ''Relations to 
Commerce" and "Relations to ^lanufacturing" con- 
sidered at length in Brigham's Geographic In- 
Uiiences in American History (Ginn), and in Miss 
Semple's American History and Its Geographic 
Conditions (Houghton, Mifiiin & Co.). Dr. C. A. 
McMurry's Type Studies from United States Ge- 
ography (]\Iacmillan), considers the values of Ni- 
agara as a type along many lines, and it should be 
in a teacher's library. Such matters as the working 
of a canal lock, or of elevator machiner}', are ex- 
plained in any good encyclopaedia. 

In Position 12 the vessel is evidently moving 



76 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

southward, and from Lake Ontario toward Lake 
Erie. It is lightly laden, for most heavy cargoes, as 
of grain or lumber, move oceanward from the in- 
terior plains, forests and mines. In Position 13 the 
pairs of shafts that extend into the vessel's hold con- 
tain an endless chain or belt with buckets that auto- 
matically remove the grain. Over the wharf are 
tubes that are used in directing the streams of grain 
from the elevators into vessels or freight cars. 

The Student's Stereoscopic Field Guide suggests 
that the study of Niagara from the different stand- 
points be introduced or supplemented by the study 
of books and literature, by field study, picture study, 
and written composition. Other similar exercises 
are often wise. Visits may be made by class and 
teacher to an electric power station, and to a neigh- 
boring grain elevator or flour mill, even though it 
be small. The United States Geological Survey pub- 
lishes a map of Niagara and vicinity which can 
easily be made of great value in the work of a class. 
It may be obtained from the Director of the sur- 
vey at Washington, D. C., for ten cents. A similar 
government map of the falls and gorge of the Miss- 
issippi River at Minneapolis (five cents) makes pos- 
sible the full application of the study of Niagara as 
a type to another important example of a gorge and 
falls of glacial origin. A valuable exercise to close 
the work would be an address from some one who 
has visited Niagara Falls, Buffalo, and the canals, 
and who can answer questions that may be still in 
doubt. 



WESTERN SCENERY 

Western America possesses sublime and inspiring 
scenes. They are visited by thousands of tourists 
yearly. The Nation has reserved some of the finest 
regions as national parks. Children should receive 
the uplift that comes from standing in the presence 
of these grand natural features of our own land. 
It will be found, moreover, that life relations are 
not overlooked in the treatment suggested. We take 
the class to the desert reaches of the Colorado Pla- 
teau at Position i, to Positions 2, 3, 4 and 5, to be- 
hold the Grand Canyon of the Colorado ; to Positions 
6, 7, 8 and 9 to study the Yellowstone National 
Park, and to Positions 10, 11 and 12 to enjoy the 
Yellowstone Canyon. We suggest in addition that 
at least the abler pupils avail themselves of the Li- 
brary Reference Groups during spare moments, 
studying the Colorado Plateau from the Library 
Reference Positions iR, 2R, 3R and 4R; the Hot 
Springs and Geysers of the Yellowstone National 
Park from Positions 5R, 6R, 7R, 8R, 9R, loR, 
iiR, and 12R; the Yosemite Valley from Positions 
13R, 14R, 15R, 16R, 17R and 18R; the Big Trees 
of California from Positions 19R, 20R,. 21R, 22 R, 
23R and 24R ; the Rocky Mountains as iseen from 
Positions 25R, 26R, 27R, 28R and 29R; and the 
Canadian Rocky Mountains and the Selkirks from 
Positions 30R, 31R, 32R, 33R, 34R and 35R. 

The best instructors in geography, in connection 
with the patented maps given in the Student's Guide, 



78 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

use the contour line maps of the United States Geo- 
logical Survey, Washington, D. C, on class field 
trips. The excursions planned above will gain much 
from such correlation. The various standpoints and 
their fields of view should be marked on the maps 
with red ink and the eyes of the class should turn 
from the mountains, slopes and valley to their repre- 
sentation on the map, both to learn to read maps and 
also to better understand what is seen in the field. 
The map will inform the student accurately as to 
distances, heights, and slopes and thus correct the 
judgments formed by observation of distant features. 
For the Colorado Canyon get the Bright Angel and 
Vishnu sheets. A fine wall map of the Yellowstone 
National Park may be made by grouping together on 
a cloth back the Gallatin, Canyon, Lake and Sho- 
shone sheets of the topographic map. Full details 
for this are given in Appendix J to Tarr's New 
Physical Geography, For the Yosemite Valley get 
the Yosemite sheet. 

Selected scenes usually present a great many 
truths. Seldom can all their contents be studied in- 
tensely at any one period in a school course. For 
instance Position i shows the surface features of 
the Colorado Plateau, and also a typical herd of 
sheep. Only one class of facts is emphasized in this 
treatment. Industrial features are considered under 
''Textiles." The series of four Positions, chosen from 
dozens that finely reveal the Canyon, illustrates a 
wealth of geographical and geological truths. Two 
treatments are suggested. The first (a), empha- 
sizes the largest scenic features, and notes the cli- 
matic and industrial relations. The second (b), 



WESTERN SCENERY 79 

Studies physiographic details more fully and ques- 
tions their causes. Much remains for study in the 
secondary school, for instance the evidence of an 
ancient peneplain that bevelled off the granite (Po- 
sitions 3 and 4) and the tilted Algonkian strata 
(Position 2). Every teacher will decide how^ much 
study of the subjects for field w-ork is wise for her 
own class, and she may then direct the pupils to 
check chosen questions for consideration. 

Teachers w^ill find helpful discussions of the Colo- 
rado Canyon in recent physical geographies and in 
Russell's Rivers of North America. A discussion 
of the larger relation of the Canyon to transportation 
routes and to the distribution of population is given 
in Miss Semple's American History and Its Geo- 
graphic Conditions. The opening chapters of Fair- 
banks' s geographical reader on The Western United 
States afford excellent reference matter for pupils. 

We study the Yellowstone National Park from 
four standpoints, which give general views. The 
higher, windw-ard, western slopes receive much rain 
and snow and are forested; w^hile the lower valleys 
and plateaus to leeward on the east are so dry that 
the surface is not clothed with verdure but the 
grasses grow in tufts which gather moisture from 
the surrounding soil. This bunch grass cures to 
form a natural hay, and now feeds herds of cattle as 
formerly millions of buffalo. 

Yellowstone Falls are due to a nearly vertical 
body of resistant rock within the weaker lavas of 
the plateau. It is evident that the river is cutting 
down into this rock. The fall is slowly becoming 
lower, and in time it w^ill nearly disappear. In con- 



80 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

trast, Niagara undercuts a nearly horizontal bed of 
resistant rock, and while the fall ever retreats up- 
stream, making a gorge, it will not disappear until 
the stream cuts back to where its gradually rising 
bed gets above the hard strata. An article on the 
National Park, by William C. Moore, in the Perry 
Magazine for December, 1904, outlines further de- 
tails admirably. John Muir's work on Our National 
Parks should be familiar to every teacher. 



QUEBEC 

The many studies of the rehef, industries, and 
cities of the United States for which stereoscopic field 
excursions are provided, present types true for Can- 
adian geography. This, for example, is notably true 
for lumbering and agriculture, where some stand- 
points are chosen in Canada. The western moun- 
tain ranges of Canada are viewed from standpoints 
listed on page 41 of the Student's Guide. A series 
of Positions at Quebec finely presents the scenic, 
historic, and commercial features of this provincial 
capital as a Library Reference Group. As the map 
and these field standpoints show a pupil, the 
city was founded on a commanding headland 
where a tributary joins the St. Lawrence, and 
where the river estuary broadens toward the 
Gulf, a natural point for a seaport and for a 
fortified colonial capital. The rugged character 
of the surface, the lack of any flood-plain, ex- 
plain the comparatively sparse surrounding settle- 
ments. The grain elevators and ocean steamer indi- 
cate the city's position intermediate between the far 
northwestern grain fields and Europe; while the 
small craft and miscellaneous cargo on the wharves 
of the Louise Basin note the character of local coast- 
wise commerce centering there. Quebec has been 
outstripped in growth and commercial importance by 
Montreal, advantageously placed at the head of navi- 
gation, but it is historically famous, is still of much 
importance, and is fairly typical of ports in the 
Maritime Provinces. 



MEXICO 

Stereographs are provided which give Positions 
for the study of the characteristics and general ap- 
pearance of the plateau region of Mexico, and for a 
ghmpse of certain phases of Mexican life. 

The situation of Mexico mostly within the torrid 
zone, and the wide variation in altitude between the 
coastal border and the interior make it a country 
possessing great ranges of temperature. Mexico is, 
in fact, an imjx^rtant and typical example of the 
modifying effect of elevation upon tropical heat. 

Combined with the variations in temperature are 
great differences in moisture. The character of the 
vegetation seen from the different Positions is a key 
to the amount of rainfall. The coastal margins and 
the windward slopes of the mountains are places of 
great precipitation. The central plateau is shut off 
by mountains from the moisture bearing winds and 
in its broadest part situated within the influence of 
the horse latitudes is a place of very scanty moisture. 
From 80 inches per year along the eastern coast to 
almost nothing in the interior is the range in the 
amount of rainfall. 

The southern portions of the central plateau are 
the most densely populated districts of Mexico. 
Notwithstanding the fact that the plateau region is 
poorly watered even at the south and consequently 
not so productive as the coastal plains its delightful 
temperature and healthful atmosphere make it a 
most desirable place to live in. The open country 
provides ample opportunity for the extension hori- 



MEXICO 83 

zontally of cities. Travel and transportation, more- 
over, in this part of Mexico are not difificult. Al- 
though bearing mountains, the plateau is so level that 
were there no roads one could ride in a carriage from 
the city of Mexico to Santa Fe. The most important 
problem at present affecting the development of this 
central plateau is that of obtaining a constant and 
efificient supply of water for agricultural purposes. 
Adequate irrigation, however, is difificult to provide 
for. Owing to the steep slopes of the land toward the 
coast and the absence of natural basins the rain water 
finds its way all too quickly to the sea. If the problem 
of holding, or obtaining a supply of water can be 
solved satisfactorily, the central plateau will then 
become the center of a large and most thriving popu- 
lation. 

The central tableland has been formed in great 
measure by the accumulation of material washed 
down from the mountain ranges rising above it and 
discharged from numerous volcanic vents. In the 
vicinity of Guanajuato the efifect of this filling up 
process is not so evident and the topography re- 
veals its truly mountainous character. 

Popocatepetl suggests Fujiyama, the sacred moun- 
tain of Japan. Pupils may be encouraged to find 
pictures of the Japanese volcano for comparison with 
the Mexican cone. Vesuvius is another peak of 
which photographic reproductions will be available. 
Large quantities of sulphur are obtained from 
Popocatepetl and other semi-active craters. The 
comparison with mountains of volcanic origin in the 
United States may be extended to include Mts. 
Shasta, Rainier and Hood. 



84 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Mexico has some deposits of coal. It is of rather 
poor quahty and occurs in seams of irregular width. 
The difficulties encountered in mining and the poor 
facilities for transportation have prevented the suc- 
cessful exploitation of the coal mines. This fact to- 
gether with the lack of education of the masses will 
be likely to delay the industrial progress of the na- 
tion. 

The original inhabitants of the country now called 
Mexico are unknown. It is generally agreed, how- 
ever, that this portion of America was invaded at 
one time by numerous tribes from the north. Seven 
of these, among them the Aztecs, are recognized as 
most important. The Aztecs were the last to come, 
and their annals claim the greatest interest in Mexi- 
can history. 

The habits and customs of the Tehuantepec In- 
dians show geographical control to an interesting 
degree. Related to the Esquimo in a linguistic way 
their method of life is as far removed from that of 
their northern cousins as the pole is from the equa- 
tor. Like the dwellers of the frozen regions, they 
have used what was nearest and most plentiful in the 
construction of their dwellings but in marked 
contrast as to result. Their houses are built not to 
exclude the air but to afiford protection against ex- 
cessive rainfall. The loose construction of the sides 
makes other provision for ventilation unnecessary 
and with an unlettered people who naturally spend 
most of their lives in the open an abundance of day- 
light within the hut would be a superfluity. Their 
diet is almost entirely vegetable: what a difference 
from the Esquimo! Corn, of which three crops a 



MEXICO 85 

year may be raised, is the Mexican staff of life. 
John Fiske says that Indian corn had much to do 
with the denser population, th^ increasing organi- 
zation of labor and the higher development in the 
arts which characterized Mexico and Central Ameri- 
ca. Goodale's Corn Plants says that the wild 
coyote corn of ^Mexico is the plant from which the 
natives developed the cultivated Indian corn or maize 
now grown throughout the tropics. It is interesting 
to note, in passing, that the presence of the limestone 
which when calcined may be dissolved to form lime- 
water has led the Indians to employ this solution to 
facilitate the removal of the outer covering of the 
grain of corn. In Cordoba, near the central western 
part of Vera Cruz, the lime sellers ranged along the 
street gutter display their stock in trade in much the 
same way that other articles in common demand are 
shown to purchasers. Climate has offered the 
Mexican Indian every inducement to become a 
sedentary people. Hence unlike their brothers of the 
middle latitude they are an agricultural and non- 
roving people with permanent dwelling places. 



SOUTH AMERICA 

ANDEAX REGIOX 

It is planned that a class shall make three obser- 
vational studies of the geography of Ecuador, Peru 
and Bolivia. They are to take Positions i, 2, 3 and 
4 to study the relief of the region and its effects 
upon climate and life. Po'sitions 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 
TO will be taken to study the cities and the home life 
of the people, noting their causal relations to sur- 
face and climate. Positions 11, 12, 13 and 14 en- 
able pupils to observe the gathering and curing of 
cocoa, the characteristic product of Ecuador. A 
number of Positions are suggested for supplemen- 
tary study, and for these duplicates are not required. 
In addition eight Positions are planned for a Li- 
brary Reference Group, enabling the comparison of 
the industries of South America with those studied 
in North America. 

The relief of western South America is so strong 
that its effects upon climate and life are marked, and 
serve admirably as types.. The first lesson empha- 
sizes relations already learned while studying 
Mexico. Most of the important truths are stated in 
elementary texts, and this first hand study w^ill 
enable the pupils to appreciate them. The change in 
temperature, occupations, productions and the char- 
acter of dwellings that accompanies any consider- 
able change in elevation should be made clear and 



SOUTH AMERICA 87 

summarized in brief general statements that may be 
written on the blackboard or in notebooks, if not 
well put in the textbook. For example : while tropi- 
cal lowlands are hot, neighboring plateaus and lofty 
valleys are w^arm or cool, and the highest mo-un- 
tains are snow capped. In a similar w^ay the rela- 
tion of the relief and prevailing winds to rainfall, 
vegetation and life should be summarized. One 
series of general truths may be stated thus : as the 
trade winds from across South America descend to 
the plateau, then to the coastal plain, the air contracts 
under the increasing pressure. Its temperature and 
its capacity for moisture increase. Little rain falls 
on the plateau and less on the plain, therefore, ir- 
rigation is necessar}^ Sugar and cotton plantations 
are found on the plain where streams issue from the 
mountain valleys. 

The ease of railway construction across O'Ur west- 
ern plains, and their consequent rapid agricultural 
development should be placed in contrast to the great 
cost of placing the healthy plateau region of the 
Andes highland in commercial connection with the 
seaports and the world. Lead the class to compare 
the extensive and progressive plantations of the 
coastal plain, in touch with the w^orld, with the 
farms of the highland, whose products are for local 
use and whose methods are usually very primitive. 

The work provided w^ith the six Positions illus- 
trating "Cities and People" will require more time 
to accomplish than is usually allowed for the study 
of one group. There is so much that is worth while 
for the pupil to observe and ponder over that enough 



88 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

time should be allowed to gain satisfactory impres- 
sions. To hurry the pupil in this particular kind of 
teaching is to commit a serious error. The teacher 
should, therefore, either select from the questions 
given those that can be answered easily within the 
allo'ted time, leaving the others for supplementary 
work, or assign a longer period for observation. 

The natives of South America whom we see from 
several of the Positions occupy a distinctive and 
important place in the social organization. 
Although not so well known as the Hurons and 
Iroquois of North America, the Indians of Peru, 
Ecuador and Bolivia — the Incas — from whom the 
people in question have descended, were undoubted- 
ly superior in numbers and culture to the more fa- 
miliar redskin of the northern latitudes. They have 
also displayed more vitality in resisting the de- 
structive effect of contact with an alien civilization. 
While in the middle latitudes of North America the 
aborigines either have disappeared or have been 
gathered together under government protection and 
thus withdrawn from participation in the life of the 
country, in South America the natives constitute 
the substratum of the entire population. 

These natives are also important as types of the 
race that by miscegenation have contributed to the 
great majority of the present population. Immedi- 
ately after the cruel and murderous conquest by the 
Spaniards it was supposed that the aborigines must 
inevitably disappear. The period of decline, how- 
ever, was transformed by crossings with the whites 
into one of increase. The advance is even at a 



SOUTH AMERICA 89 

more rapid rate than that of the whites, but not as 
a distinct race. Descendants of conquered and con- 
querors are, in a word, merged in a single nation- 
ality. 

Among the Andes the natives are generally brown 
in color; their hair is coarse, black and lank; they 
have short, beardless chins and prominent noses. 

The contrast between the home of the better 
people and the squalid hut and surroundings of the 
peons is most striking. The comparison suggests 
the difference betw^een the coastal cities and those of 
the interior. This difference is caused in no small 
measure by the isolation from the world imposed 
upon the inhabitants of the interior by difficulties 
of travel and transportation. 

The series of Positions taken to study cocoa pro- 
duction should establish another industrial type. 
The map in Adams' Commercial Geography 
showing the regions producing cocoa makes it clear 
that the industry is peculiarly characteristic of So'Uth 
America. Cocoa, chocolate, broma and shells are 
sold at any grocer's. Sweet chocolate and chocolate 
covered candy are familiar to the children. Interest 
may be heightened by study of shells, nibs, cocoa 
butter, etc. These may be obtained locally, or your 
principal or superintendent can obtain a full set of 
specimens by asking such a gift from the Walter M. 
Baker Co., of Boston, Mass. This leading firm also 
issues a book describing cocoa production and manu- 
facture. The statements in Carpenter's South 
America are reliable, except that cocoa is made from 
the seed kernels, like chocolate, and not from the 



90 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

shells. In curing the seeds the pulp is allowed to 
ferment on open platforms made of slit bamboo and 
palms, the kernels developing flavor in the process. 
The pulp is removed from the seeds, as it ferments 
and dries, by the feet of the workmen. The cli- 
mate of the lowlands of the Guayas delta is so moist 
in the wet season that a stock of beans cannot be long 
stored at Guayaquil without deteriorating. They 
must be dried in the sun to prevent spoiling. 

This type of industry should be compared with 
others. With the cotton and sugar plantations of 
the same coastal plain in Peru. With the produc- 
tion of tea and coffee in other tropical lands. With 
the production of fruit and other farm products in 
the home district of any school. While some com- 
parisons are suggested in the Guide, competent 
teachers may profitably carry them further than 
there outlined. 



EUROPE 

IRELAND 

The class will take Positions i, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 
for two studies of the ''Cottage Homes of Tenant 
Farmers'' of Ireland and they will take Po'sition 7 
twice, make a study of specimens, and return to 
Position 5 in considering the topic 'Teat/' It is 
further suggested that abler pupils make a study of 
the "Street Markets and Farm Products of Ireland" 
from seven standpoints in the Library Reference 
Group. 

Ireland did not prosper during the 19th century. 
The competition of new countries, after steam trans- 
portation became common, caused farm products to 
decrease in value in Europe, while landlords kept 
rents high. Factory production in England greatly 
decreased the value of the products of cottage indus- 
tries. Irish tenants were in sore distress. Many 
died of famine. Thousands emigrated to America. 
In x\merica government land could be obtained free, 
so rents could never be unduly high and wages must 
be good to retain workmen. In Ireland a tenant 
could not buy land ; he must pay what rent the land- 
lord chose or be evicted from his holding. In con- 
sequence many landlords charged every tenant all 
that he could pay, thus leaving to even the enterpris- 
ing little or no profit. Energy and thrift were dis- 
couraged, cottages were often hovels, stock ran 



92 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

loose, land was unimproved. England is now loan- 
ing money to the tenants, enabling them to buy their 
farms, and since they themselves will profit by in- 
dustry their condition will doubtless improve. 

The only similar condition in America existed in 
the South after the Civil War, where portions of the 
great plantations were rented to negroes and *^poor 
whites." They had no means with which to pur- 
chase the land, and they would not work regularly 
and faithfully for the former slave holders. Rent- 
ing land for cotton farming proved the only practi- 
cable plan. Many cotton belt tenants are always in 
debt and as shiftless as the poorer peasants of Eu- 
rope, although others work hard and have bought 
their farms since cotton rose in value. 

For the study of peat, specimens can be secured 
from dealers in common minerals or through pupils 
having relatives in Ireland. In the northern states 
peat can be dug in many swamps and boggy mead- 
ows. Sphagnum moss from which most peat is 
formed in part can easily be obtained from any flor- 
ist. The better botanies and physical geographies 
now in use describe the growth of peat bogs. It is 
planned that the study period should be apportioned 
into four divisions. 



GREAT BRITAIN 

London is the world's largest city, its most im- 
portant seaport, the leading center of commerce, 
shipping, banking, and the seat of government for a 
most widespread empire. 

The class will take four Positions in the city and 
its outport, while it is suggested that a dozen supple- 
mentary standpoints be provided for use by such 
pupils as care to plan time for further observation. 
A Library Reference Group brings pupils into the 
presence of royalty, and also before the buildings 
and officials that denote free government by the 
people. Another Library Reference Group presents 
the beautiful scenery of the Scottish Highlands and 
the Low^lands, and their contrasting life conditions. 
A third Group sets pupils who undertake maximum 
work in the romantic city of Edinburgh. 

London is a city of manifold interest as a geo- 
graphic type : teachers will find the aid necessary to 
develop the suggestions embodied in the Field Guide 
if they will refer to pertinent chapters of Mackin- 
der's Britain and the British Seas (Appleton). 
The advantages of London's positions on a tidal estu- 
ary, the drowned valley mouth of the master stream 
of lowland England, facing the continent and ad- 
joining the oceans, are finely set forth. The sig- 
nificance of its position at the lowest ford of tribal 
times, centering now at London Bridge, the head of 
navigation, is pointed out. The need of extensive 
dock basins in this tidal stream, and of outports far 



94 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

below London where the shallow estuary deepens, 
and their character are made plain. The typical 
sections of the city are described, the docks, in- 
dustrial section and monotonous, crowded homes of 
the poor in East London (Position i) ; the shops 
and offices in the heart of the city (Position 4); 
the enclosing circles of stationary population and of 
steadily growing suburbs. The importance of Lon- 
don as a center of government, commerce, banking, 
religion, shopping and other phases of life is 
portrayed. 

The Library Reference Group on the relief of 
Scotland presents such sharply contrasting land 
forms and life conditions, affording distinct types of 
the geography of plains and mountainous regions, 
that it is worthy of being provided in duplicate for 
systematic study by entire classes, in school systems 
where the course of study allows ample time for 
geography. Mackinder's monograph on British 
geography referred to above gives a brief, clear 
sketch of the structure of Scotland, and of the origin 
of the Lowlands as a ''rift valley." Emerson's The 
Nezv England States, a supplementary volume in the 
Tarr & McMurry series of geographies, describes 
suggestively the similar contrasts of surface and 
life in New England. All of the scenes visited in 
Great Britain are associated with historic times and 
persons, and a skilful teacher will utilize the interest 
they awaken to lead some children to read the fine 
books on English history and biography now avail- 
able for young people, and such introductions to 
English historical fiction as Crockett's Red Cap 
Tales of the North. 



THE IBERIAN PENINSULA 

Strong contrasts in geographical conditions are 
found upon the Iberian Peninsula. For example, 
upon the northwestern shoulder the rainfall is ex- 
cessive, and on the easterly and southeasterly coast, 
as well as upon the plateaus of the interior, the pre- 
cipitation of moisture is very scanty. In the stand- 
points selected the differences in the amount and 
character of the vegetation form the basis for the 
study of rainfall. A map showing average precipi- 
tation, sketched upon the blackboard, would be a 
helpful device. (See Tarr & AIcMurry's Europe.) 
Conditions of relief are also observed from all of 
the first six Positions, except Position 5, and the 
differences are very striking. The control which 
these two factors, relief and climate, exert upon the 
development of the people, is shown very clearly in 
the Iberian Peninsula. In fact, the present back- 
ward condition of Spain is due in part either to the 
ruggedness of the land, or the aridity of the climate, 
or both. 

The antiquated methods employed in doing things 
tend also to hinder industrial and commercial pros- 
perity. The Iberians are content to perform their 
work in the most plodding and laborious fashion. 
Lack of education and absence of enterprise keep 
the Spanish people where their forefathers were. In 
the second series of Positions will be found typical 
illustrations, gathered from remote portions of the 
peninsula, of the ''Backward Customs'' of the 
people. 

In Position 7, on the level fields around Valencia, 



96 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

where . the flood-plain of the Guadalquivir merges 
into the coastal lowlands, we find, at close range, an 
excellent type of the old-fashioned wooden plough. 
It is nothing but a sharpened stick, and in compari- 
son with the subsoil plough of modern construction 
does little more than scratch the surface of the 
ground. At one side are two hand tools ; the short- 
handled, heavy hoe with a triangular blade, and a 
wooden mallet for pulverizing lumps of earth. 

The irrigating machine at Cadiz reminds one of 
the sakiyehs of Egypt. Fortunately this scene af- 
fords an opportunity for contrasting old and new 
machines. Behind this clumsy affair which requires 
at least one man and a mule to operate it, there is, 
in the distance, over the tops of the trees, a modem 
automatic wind-mill. One runs only when there is 
somebody in attendance to drive the mule ; the other 
works without supervision, night and day. One is a 
source of continual expense for labor and fodder ; the 
other practically requires no other outlay than the 
first cost. 

The cactus seen in the foreground was introduced 
into Spain after the discovery of America. It runs 
wild and is often cultivated in hedge-rows. 

The method of harvesting grain, shown in Po- 
sition 7, is quite common among the peasants of 
Europe and among the people of the East. Stand- 
points showing similar conditions in other countries, 
if already studied, should be recalled. The economic 
problems given in small type are added for the pur- 
pose of stimulating thought. Without the teacher's 
help, probably few pupils will be able to answer 
them. 



FRANCE 

Standpoints in France have been selected from 
which the surface features and coastal border may 
be studied in their relation to life effects. An op- 
portunity is also provided to get a somewhat com- 
prehensive view of Paris, the most beautiful city in 
the world. Library Reference Groups present the 
public buildings, monuments and works of art in 
Paris and the cathedrals of France. 

The teacher who desires to make most adequate 
preparation to lead the discussion suggested in the 
introduction to the study of relief will get much help 
from Chapter XV in the International Geography. 
The opening paragraphs in Chapter XI in Carpen- 
ter's geographical reader, Europe, are excellent for 
the pupils. 

In connection with the topic ''Relief and Its Ef- 
fects" Positions are chosen from which the open, 
rolling character of the country in the north may be 
compared with the mountainous boundary between 
Spain upon the south and Italy on the east. The 
even skyline as observed from the first Position and 
some of the supplementary Positions leads to the 
legitimate inference that the area of faint relief is 
far more extensive than the particular field of vision. 
From the well-wooded appearance of the country 
seen from Position i it is natural to conclude that 
rainfall there is abundant. Around Le Croisic, on 
the contrary, the generally barren appearance of the 
area and the fact that the evaporation of salt from 



98 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

sea water is successfully carried on there indicate 
that in the country of the salt fields the rainfall is 
slight. 

In France a large proportion of the farms are 
held by peasant proprietors like those seen near Car- 
haix. The individual holdings are small, averaging 
from fifteen to seventeen acres each. The effect of 
the size of the farms and of the peasant ownership 
upon the methods of work is obvious. Expensive 
farm machinery is out of the question and all the 
members of the family work with tireless energy in 
simple and somewhat primitive ways to cultivate 
their land. 

The strong contrasts between the scenery of the 
Pyrenees and that of northern France afford good 
opportunity for showing the importance of relief in 
controlling the usefulness of the land for farming 
purposes and in determining locations of lines of 
travel. In the Position taken upon the road to 
Gavarnie the absence of cultivated land is signifi- 
cant. So is the presence of the roadway at the side 
of the river. While the northern plains are capable 
of sustaining a dense population, the steep slopes 
of this mountainous region must forever remain 
almost unsettled. 

The obvious difference in the climatic conditions 
between the northern slopes of the Pyrenees and the 
southern exposure of the maritime Alps is interest- 
ing and important. It shows very clearly the effect 
of mountains as a barrier to the winds. 

The method of training the vines in the cultiva- 
tion of the grape is typical of all the vineyards. This, 
together with the utilization of every available 



FRANCE 99 

space, is a form of intensive cultivation of the land 
worthy of notice. The use of the fertilizer is a 
necessary corollary. 

In considering the relation between the coastal 
border and industries the teacher will find the. map 
on page 229 in A Commercial Geography, by 
Adams, most suggestive. 

The situation of Mentone upon a salient portion 
of a relatively smooth coast line, with its artificial 
harbor, is a raod illustration of one wav in which 
man reacts for his own benefit upon natural sur- 
roundings. In the construction of breakwaters the 
French have achieved a notable degree of success. 
This is in part, of course, the result of a coast line 
almost unbroken by important inlets. 

The efifect of the mountainous topography in 
crowding the settlements close to the water's edge 
and in determining the development of along-shore 
travel and transportation is well exemplified in the 
conditions around Mentone. 

The cultivation of the oyster is an important in- 
dustry in France. It helps to give France high rank 
among countries engaged in winning a livelihood 
from the sea. A gradually sloping shore and a suf- 
ficient rise and fall of the tide to uncover a con- 
siderable area of mud flats are conditions essential 
for the oyster industry as practiced in France. 

The oysters can be gathered by the French method 
only during the period of low tide which, of course, 
comes at a later hour each day. In the United 
States the oystermen work quite differently. They 
use either dredges or long-handle tongs and se- 
cure the shellfish in water from ten to twenty-five 



100 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

feet deep. The United States furnishes about five- 
sixths of the world's oyster supply. 

The method of obtaining salt seen near Le Croisic 
is common upon the coasts of warm, sunshiny coun- 
tries where the rainfall is not too frequent and abun- 
dant. The comparison referred to in the Student's 
Guide is well w^orth the making. In the United 
States some salt is produced in this manner but most 
of it is obtained from brine wells. 

The fishing craft seen at Le Croisic and Etretat 
are a type of clumsy, open boat. They are built for 
short trips. The fish are caught in seines of very 
fine mesh. These boats are engaged in the sardine 
fisheries. France sends canned sardines all over 
the w^orld. 

f More than the information easily accessible in 
Tarr & McMurry's Europe, under the topic Paris, 
and in Carpenter's Geographical Reader, Europe, 
Chapters XII and XIII, there is little that need be 
given here. It may be well to quote a few lines 
from The International Geography, page 250, viz.: 
'Taris illustrates the rich past of France in its monu- 
ments, and reflects the varied aspects of the country 
in the daily life of its people. Its beauty, made up 
of contrasts softened by time, makes many a French- 
man forget his province, and attracts many a for- 
eigner from his native land," 



HOLLAND AND BELGIUM 

As being the most typical features of the Nether- 
lands, the pupils are to study the ''Dikes and 
Polders'' of the lowlands of Holland, and for this 
we take them to Positions i, 2, and 3. Elsewhere 
they study the character of the sources of the 
Rhine in Switzerland (p. 170), and its middle 
course in Germany (p. 151) ; Holland is the Rhine 
delta. 

The first Library Reference Group takes pupils 
to six Positions in the great seaports that evince 
Holland's commercial importance, while the second 
group of four Positions presents the villages of the 
dikes and dunes. Belgium has been the most 
populous region of northern Europe for centuries, 
and the third group of six Positions takes pupils to 
its important and characteristic cities. 

The introductory lessons suggested for every field 
trip will vary according to the environment and 
previous preparation of classes, but any teacher of 
European geography should find her class familiar 
with deltas in the street gutters near the school and 
acquainted with the main facts as to the Mississippi 
delta. Swift headwater streams erode the land, and 
rivers transport rock waste, and deposit the finest 
silt as mudbanks, or deltas, where their currents 
slacken at their mouths. Muddy floodwaters over- 
spread a delta and add a layer of silt. Most is 
dropped where the water leaves the strong current 
of the river, and little is deposited far back from the 



102 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

main channels. Thus the stream forms very broad 
natural levees on either bank, with swamps farther 
away. Therefore along the Mississippi there are 
plantations and towns — New Orleans, for example 
— and behind them lie undrained swamps. Simi- 
larly Dordrecht is on firm ground next a distribu- 
tary of the Rhine, w^ith shipping on the river side 
and meadows behind its outskirts. 

In the introductory lesson a problem is briefly 
presented for class solution — How make the delta 
mudflats of Holland safe and fit for culture ? With 
the teacher the pupils should work out the need for 
dikes to keep out river floods and such storm tides as 
that which swept over Galveston in America. Next 
they will see the need of pumps to make and keep the 
protected lowlands dry. They may discuss the kinds 
of power available — waterpower, steam-power, ani- 
mal-power, wind-power — considering their relative 
cost and whether pumping must be constant or not. 
Then will come the ditching of the polders and the 
provision of high-level canals between or on the 
dikes to remove the water pumped into them, 
wherever a dike does not adjoin the river or sea. 
The dikes themselves are a problem : of what shall 
they be made? Hov/ broad? Of what shape in 
cross section? What secondary uses will their tops 
serve? Such an introduction serves to awaken 
every pupil so that on the field lesson he will use 
his eyes and wits to the utmost. 

To understand the quaint costumes of the Dutch 
villages, one must know the isolated life and the con- 
servatism of such communities in past days. 



THE SCANDINAVIAN PENINSULA 

Two main topics are presented for study: 'The 
surface features of the Scandinavian Peninsula'' and 
'Tiords." Position 5, "Odde and the Sorfiord, in 
the Hardanger Country," is valuable enough as a 
type and is so rich in content that duplicates for this 
Position sufficient to supply all the members of the 
study section are not an extravagant proposition. 

The steep slopes of Norway and the gently rolling 
land in southern and eastern Sweden are shown re- 
spectively in Positions i and 2. The scenery around 
Jonkoping (Position 2) is not unlike that of the more 
open parts of the northern United States. The soil 
in both cases is of glacial origin. The ice sheet that 
covered Sweden had its origin in the mountains of 
Norway. The long summer days of these far north- 
ern latitudes help to make the short growing season 
successful. The difference in relief as shown in 
Positions i and 2 explains why agriculture is the 
leading industry in Sweden and is of little impor- 
tance in Norway. 

Throughout most of Norway and in the western 
part of Sweden extensive forests of pine are found. 
Rapidly flow^ing rivers like the one seen in J emtland 
(Position 3) are useful in floating these logs down 
stream and in furnishing water power for saw mills. 

Fishing and commerce are two occupations natural 
to people inhabiting an irregular coast line., Bergen 
is the most important fishing port of Norway. . 
Along the wharves may be seen the warehouses for 



104 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

storing fish and merchandise, and in the harbor are 
numerous fishing boats. The steamers bring sup- 
plies of food and manufactured articles to Norway 
and carry away lumber and fish. Good harbors 
abound upon this western coast, but the ports are 
few and far between. The reasons are that the land 
adjoining the coast is so unproductive few people 
live there and the products of the interior find an 
outlet eastward down the land slopes. In the ab- 
sence of a population with surplus productions for 
exchange, commerce is impossible, and the oppor- 
tunities for good anchorage and safe shelter go un- 
used. Norway can never furnish food enough to 
sustain a large population. 

The fiords of Norway are drowned river val- 
leys which were deepened by the glaciers that once 
filled them. The subsidence of the Norwegian 
coast has given the waters of the ocean an oppor- 
tunity to penetrate sometimes nearly a hundred 
miles inland. These arms of the sea are deep and 
narrow and branch irregularly into a maze of chan- 
nels. 

At the head and along the borders of the fiords, 
situated upon tiny delta plains formed from deposits 
brought down by the streams from the mountains, 
villages like Odde are found. Life in these places 
is usually of the most primitive sort. The men be- 
come sailors as well as fishermen. Everyone knows 
how to handle a boat and the fiord is the principal 
thoroughfare. When the men are away from home 
the women cultivate the scanty garden patches. The 
isolated situation of these villages shuts them ofif 



THE SCANDINAVrAN PENINSULA 105 

almost completely from communication with the out- 
side world. 

In these far northern latitudes mountains of only- 
moderate height rise above the snow line. The 
peaks in Norway situated in the path of the moist 
westerly winds are frequently covered with snow 
and are the natural breeding grounds of glaciers. 



GERMANY 

The Rhine valley is chosen as the feature of Ger- 
many for stereoscopic field study by all pupils be- 
cause it presents varied and valuable types of relief 
and related life. It is famous in history and litera- 
ture, and renowned for scenic beauties. We take the 
class to Position i as an introduction to the Rhine 
Valley; to Positions 2, 3, 4 and 5 for a study of 
'Tarts of the Rhine V^alley;" return to Positions 2, 
3, 4 and 5 to study ''Life Along the Rhine;" and 
return to Position i for a "Review and Test Les- 
son." 

In the work on the "Parts of the Rhine Valley," 
a class section of standard size will be divided into' 
two groups of twelve pupils each. For each group 
there will be two duplicate stereographs, enabling 
pupils to take Position 2 twice and two duplicates 
for Position 3 ; and the questions upon each Position 
are divided into paragraphs (a) and (b) to corres- 
pond to the two observation periods. Positions 4 
and 5 are taken but once during this lesson. 

When considering "Life Along the Rhine," the 
pupils will be arranged in four groups of six pupils 
each. During each observation period, of five min- 
utes, one pupil will be supplied with two stereo- 
graphs, enabling him to take Positions 3 and 4 in 
turn, to facilitate comparisons. 

We have suggested as Library Reference Groups 
a study of Berlin from twelve Positions ; "Transpor- 
tation on German Waterways" from six Positions, 



GERMANY 107 

one being a return to Position 1 1 in Berlin ; a study 
of the Kiel Canal from two Positions, and its com- 
parison with the Corinth Ship Canal, one Position, 
and the Suez Canal, one Position ; of Cologne Cathe- 
dral from five Positions ; of ''German Industries" 
from six Positions. The Positions in the larger 
groups, such as those on Berlin and on German in- 
dustries ma}' be divided among several students; or 
the topics to be prepared for recitation may be dis- 
tributed among several observers. School systems 
desiring to give much time to first-hand study of 
German life may profitably provide outfits enabling 
the study of one of more of these gro-ups by entire 
classes. 

As already stated, the Rhine valley is chosen as 
the feature of Germany for stereoscopic field study 
by all pupils because it presents varied and valuable 
types of relief and related life. The Rhine rises 
in the Swiss Alps, thence flows for two hundred 
miles over its flood-plain in a fertile lowland between 
the upraised mountain blocks of the Black Forest 
and V^osges. The Xeckar is one of several rivers 
that have cut narrow valleys deeply into these pla- 
teaus, while flowing down to the sunken land-block 
•of the Rhine. Below Bingen the Rhine flows for 
sixtv miles in the 2:or2:e that it cut as earth forces 
slowly raised the plateau across its middle course. 
Xear Cologne the Rhine flows out upon the plain of 
northern Germany, while in Holland it divides into 
the distributaries of its delta. The densest popula- 
tion IS north of Cologne, because of free rail, river, 
and canal communications over the plain, the neigh- 
borhood of seaports, and the coal and iron deposits 



108 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

in the adjacent highland border. The highland 
block is rather sparsely settled, in comparison, be- 
cause relatively infertile and inaccessible; but upon 
strips of the narrow Rhine flood-plain, near the open- 
ing of tributary valleys, towns have developed to 
conduct exchanges between the back country and the 
outer world. Heidelberg is similarly placed. In the 
middle ages ''robber barons'' built strong castles on 
easily defended crags, and on islands and banks of 
the Rhine, that they might levy toll on the merchants 
using this valley route. The upper Rhine valley has 
large river ports, and a dense population on and near 
the fertile lands that border the swamps and forests 
normal to the central flood-plain strip. In physio- 
graphic features and the related distribution of popu- 
lation, the region is comparable to our northeastern 
states and to Scotland. 

The physiography of the Rhine valley and its re- 
lation to population and industry are presented in 
detail in the volume of Appleton's World Series on 
Central Europe. Dr. C. A. McMurry promises a 
treatment of the Rhine and its cities in his forth- 
coming book on Type Studies from European Geog- 
raphy (Macmillan). Adams' Commercial Geog- 
raphy contains good maps of the population, rail- 
ways, waterways, and industries of Germany. To 
make definite the introductory study of the distribu- 
tion of the population in western Germany, a simple 
map or diagram of the population should be placed 
on the blackboard, then copied by pupils. 



ALPINE LIFE AND SCENERY 

Alpine life and scenery form an important geo- 
graphical type. The standpoints ''The Ortler from 
Trafoi'' and "The Picturesque Chamonix Valley" 
are so rich in detail and suggestiveness that enough 
duplicates may well be provided to supply each mem- 
ber of the class. A stereoscopic visit to these places 
furnishes an experience which is valuable in under- 
standing the life of mountain people in other parts 
of the world. 

From Positions 3, 4, 5 and 6 there is an unusually 
good opportunity to get realistic impressions of a 
valley glacier. Glaciers are not only important from 
a physiographic standpoint : they have a geographic 
value, for the glaciers of the Alps are a source of 
considerable income to the Swiss people. A study 
of the glacier is also important geographically in 
forming a basis for the understanding of the mo- 
rainal deposits found in regions affected by conti- 
nental glaciers. 

The Alps belong to the mature, vigorous type of 
mountains (see text books in physical geography by 
Davis, Tarr and others). Lofty, snow-covered 
peaks, steep slopes and sharp ridges prevail. Every 
year thousands of tourists come to enjoy the rugged 
and picturesque scenery. Mountain climbing is also 
a fascinating pastime for the more vigorous, and the 
dry, bracing air of these high altitudes is sought each 
year by many invalids. Switzerland, in fact, has been 
called the playground of Europe. 

The scenery found around the upper and middle 



110 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

portions of the glacier is typical of the highest alti- 
tudes. Trees are nowhere to be seen, the steep, ir- 
regular slopes are, for the most part, barren of any 
vegetation and snow and ice abound. In sheltered 
places, where a handful of soil has accumulated in 
a hollow, an Alpine flora of bright hues relieves the 
sombre coloring of the naked clififs. The lofty val- 
leys, sometimes circular in outline and filled to the 
brim with snow and ice, are the natural breeding 
grounds for the glacier. Scenery of the type for 
which the Swiss mountains stand is found in the 
New Zealand Alps, the Caucasus, the Pyrenees, the 
Selkirks and in Scandinavia. 

From Position i we see a glacier as a whole in- 
cluding the snow field above and the characteristic 
tongue of ice below. Melting, freezing and pressure 
change the fleecy snow of the loftier slopes into the 
granular ice of the neve portion. Lower down, the 
glacier becomes compacted into a hard, translucent 
mass (see Position 6). 

Along the middle of the more conspicuous glacier 
seen from Position i is a well-marked medial 
moraine. Position 3 also shows this phenomenon 
in a remarkable degree. At the lateral margin of 
the glacial tongue upon the side of the Ortler, be- 
tween the ice and the pyramidal crag, are morainal 
deposits. From Position 4 the observer will see 
upon the surface of the ice the rocky fragments 
which go to make up the lateral moraine. (For a 
discussion of moraines and other usual phenomena 
of valley glaciers see the elementary text books in 
physical geography by Davis, Tarr and Gilbert and 
Brigham.) 



ALPIXE LIFE AND SCENERY 111 

Snowfields and glaciers are an inevitable conse- 
quence of the situation of the Alps in the path of the 
moisture-laden westerly winds. From these glaciers 
four important rivers — the Rhine, Rhone, Danube 
and Po — derive a constant and uniform supply of 
water. The somewhat central location of the Alps 
is, therefore, important in establishing a reservoir 
upon which the usefulne-ss of these rivers for agri- 
culture, transportation and manufacturing depends. 

The people who live among the Alps find profit- 
able employment in the summer in caring for tour- 
ists and in serving the mountain climbers as guides. 
In the loftier portions human habitation is impos- 
sible. Food supply is limited to a few wild creatures 
— the mountain sheep, the goat and the chamois. 
Hunters stalk these animals and tourists accompa- 
nied by guides climb the ridges and peaks to en- 
joy the pure air and inspiring scenery. Upon the 
relatively gradual slopes of the lower portions 
scanty crops of grass are grown and cows, sheep 
and goats are raised. 

The hamlet at the foot of Le Brevent is located 
upon the gently sloping sides of a broad fan delta. 
The river Arve at the bottom of the valley forms 
the convex margin of this fan, where the steep 
forest clad slopes end are the sides, and the handle 
is at the large opening between the trees. The dif- 
ferent areas of light and shade show that portions 
of the surface are under cultivation. 

The Library Reference Group offers an oppor- 
tunity for pupils especially interested to enjoy the 
beauties of Swiss lake scenery. Switzerland 
through the Stereoscope (issued by Underwood & 



112 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Underwood) giving one hundred Positions in 
Switzerland, with a guide book by M. S. Emery, 
and eleven patent maps upon which each Position 
is definitely located, ofifers a grand opportunity to 
become intimately acquainted with the most famous 
parts of Switzerland. 



ITALY 

The topics presented for the study of Italy 
through the stereoscope are ''Surface Features/' 
''Rome" and "Venice." Library Reference Groups 
on "Pope Pius X and the Vatican," upon "Florence" 
and upon St. Mark's in Venice are also provided. 

The physiographic regions of Italy are well 
marked. A map of the country like the one found 
in Longman's Nezv School Atlas shows very clearly 
and graphically the important physical features. 
The description of Italy given in the most recent 
text books will be found suggestive and helpful. A 
more complete presentation is given in Chapter XX 
in the International Geography (Appleton's). 

The view from the dome of St. Peter's towards 
the northeast ( Position i ) reveals the level character 
of the land in the midst of which Rome is situated. 
The graceful bends of the River Tiber are well 
shown. In the distance, as would be expected from 
the map, the land rises a bit and breaks into low hills. 

The situation of Genoa is not the most favorable 
in some respects for the location of a city. Steep 
grades increase the difficulty arid expense of trans- 
portation. Wear and tear upon the beasts of burden 
and upon harnesses and wagons are greater than 
they would be upon level roads. The time required 
to go a certain distance is also increased. What has 
been said of travel within the city also holds true to 
a greater extent in regard to the country around 
about. Modern means of transportation require al- 



114 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

most level tracks and straight roads. Curves and 
grades add materially to the cost of carrying goods 
and passengers. 

A comparison of the country around Genoa w^ith 
that in which Rome is situated will be helpful in 
contrasting characteristics of surface features. The 
importance of enough slope to take care of the sur- 
face drainage is emphasized in the difference in 
healthfulness of Genoa and Rome. Malaria, which 
renders the country around Rome almost uninhabit- 
able in certain seasons, is quite unknown at Genoa. 

Carrara is situated among mountains of marble. 
The refuse from centuries of quarrying and the 
waste brought down by the mountain torrents make 
the slopes look as if they were covered with snow. 
The relatively soft limestone of which this range is 
composed is easily carved by the running water into 
pointed peaks, sharp ridges and deep trench-like val- 
leys. Hence these mountains take on the aspect of 
their more lofty neighbors, the Alps. 

Vesuvius is the only active volcano upon the 
mainland of Europe. The Apennines have been 
formed by the folding and crumpling of the earth's 
crust. To the west of this range from Genoa to 
Naples old cones, and craters containing lakes, in- 
dicate the former greater extension of volcanic ac- 
tion. The lower slopes of Vesuvius, composed of 
rich, fertile soil, the volcanic ash of previous erup- 
tions, are notwithstanding the danger from erup- 
tions a highly cultivated region. See topic Vol- 
canoes, treated in the last section of this Manual. 

Positions 5 and 6 are good illustrations of the 
geography of a mountainous region bordering upon 



ITALY 115 

the sea. The narrow fringe of buildings skirting 
the diffs at Amalfi, the construction of roads by- 
tunnel and parapet seen from the same standpoint, 
the absence of alongshore pathways at Portoiino 
and the location of the last named place upon the 
gentler slopes of the mountain side, where a break 
in the range and an irregularity in the coast line 
help to form a harbor, all show^ the control which 
the physical features have exerted upon the oc- 
cupancy of the land by man. In Position 6 in the 
middle distance the bare slopes descending abruptly 
to the water's edge lead one to suspect that at no 
very distant date a landslide, caused by the under- 
mining of the waves and by the action of the 
weather, took place. The nearer portion of the 
shore line, just beyond the narrow neck of land, also 
illustrates the continuous destruction by the waves. 

In Positions 7 to 12 the most celebrated features 
of Modern and Ancient Rome are studied. 

The teacher will find the book Rome Through 
the Stereoscope, by D. J. Ellison, D. D., issued 
by the present publishers, full of information con- 
cerning the Eternal City. This book describes in 
more detail than is possible in this manual all of 
the standpoints selected in Rome and many others. 
A copy of this w^ork, if not already in the Public 
Library, would probably be put in upon request. 

Saint Peter's Church is the most famous build- 
ing of present importance in Rome and the most re- 
nowned church in the world. It is also the center 
of the Roman Catholic religion. These facts de- 
serve emphasis in the recitation. 

Position I may be taken while studying Rome 



116 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

for the sake of reviewing the Vatican. The Library 
Reference Group, entitled 'Tope Pius X and the 
Vatican," will be found an interesting and valuable 
addition to the study of St. Peter's. 

The site of the Forum was once a tract of marshy 
ground. By means of the Cloaca Maxima, the 
'^Great Sewer,'' the land was thoroughly drained 
and became the assemblying-place of the people. 

A detailed description of the Castle of St. 
Angelo will be found in the book referred to above 
on pp. 139 to 145. An equally good description of 
the Pantheon is given on pp. 155 to 162. 

We take the class to Position 13 for a broad view 
across the lagoon of Venice, and to Positions 14, 15 
and 16, to study the ''Streets of Venice" and the 
palaces that border these canals. It is suggested 
that some pupils take the three Positions in the 
Library Reference Group to study more closely St. 
Mark's Cathedral. 

Venice is a type of Mediterranean cities. Their 
historic and artistic features attract many tour- 
ists. Venice is worth special study because 
its foundation, development, and decline, and its 
present unique characteristics are clearly due 
to physiographic causes. Study of the city may 
therefore combine geography and history. For 
instance, the palaces and churches give impressive 
evidence as to the wealth that the merchant 
princes of Venice accumulated when they controlled 
commerce between Asia and western Europe, by 
way of the Adriatic Sea and the Alpine passes, or by 
means of fleets sailing to the Netherlands. The 
waters encircling the city saved these treasures of 



ITALY 117 

architecture from destruction in wars, for the 
powerful Venetian navy prevented attack by 
hostile armies. While many palaces are of Gothic 
and Romanesque types of architecture, St. Mark's 
cathedral is the finest example of Byzantine 
churches, for Venetians were in close commercial 
coiTtact with both East and West. This historical 
treatment is given in detail in the Perry Magazine 
for September, 1899. A Temple Primer, Brown's 
Venetian Republic, tells the history briefly. His- 
tory and poetry and such pictures as Ruskin gives 
will aid the pupils to appreciate the treasures of art 
and to understand the glamour of romance that leads 
multitudes of tourists to visit and linger in the cities 
on Mediterranean shores. 



RUSSIA 

The study of Russia through the stereoscope is 
centered about the topics ''Peasant Life" and ''Sur- 
face Features." Opportunity is also provided in the 
Library Reference Groups to become somewhat fa- 
mihar with Moscow^ and St. Petersburg. 

The vast extent of unbroken or continuous level 
land in Russia is the most conspicuous physiographic 
feature of that country. Wherever the standpoint 
is taken it is always in evidence. This character- 
istic of the surface of the land has been and will 
continue to be a most important geographical fac- 
tor. In the past it offered a broad and unobstructed 
pathway for the westward migration of the nomadic 
peoples of Asia. The openness of the country en- 
couraged the invaders to continue their roving habits 
and prevented the development of a national life. 
Moreover this plain was necessarily for centuries the 
scene of internal strife and the natural battleground 
of covetous foreigners. Thus while other European 
nations were steadily developing a higher degree of 
civilization Russia's progress towards unity of gov- 
ernment and prosperity was retarded and demoral- 
ized by invasion and conquest. On the other hand 
this vast plain holds great promise for the future de- 
velopment of an important nation. Extending 
southward into the verv heart of Russia from the 
relatively narrow tundras of the Arctic coast are 
forests of birch, pine, fir, oak and beech. Lumber 
and the products of the forest — tar, turpentine and 



RUSSIA 119 

wood pulp — are important articles of export. The 
southern border of this forest land has been cleared 
for cultivation ( Position i ) . The method of build- 
ing the peasant's house and the presence of logs in 
the dooryard suggest the proximity of an abundant 
supply of timber. In fact, when wood is scarce the 
huts are often made of mud plastered over a frame- 
work of twigs. ThrO'Ughout the central and ''black 
earth'' portions of Russia's plain, agriculture hold an 
important place. With improvements in the method 
of farming and the introduction of labor-saving ma- 
chinery this region would assume its proper position 
among the food producing areas of the world. The 
levelness of Russia makes possible the presence of 
numerous and ramified river systems. These con- 
ditions in turn invite the construction of canals. As 
a result in Russia the waterways are the cheapest 
and the controlling means for the transportation of 
goods. The construction of railways, although not 
as great as might be expected in this land of faint 
relief, is nevertheless especially favored by topo- 
graphic conditions. The immediate future must see 
a rapid increase in the number and extent of railway 
lines. On the whole it will be safe to say that the 
surface of Russia offers one of the most striking 
examples of the relation of geographical surround- 
ings to historical and industrial development. 

Although the Russian people are divided into a 
number of classes — nobles, clergy, merchants, fac- 
tory laborers, burghers and peasants — the peasants 
play the most important part. Space will not per- 
mit any elaboration or explanation of this statement 
and for further information the teacher is referred 



120 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

to Russian Life in Town and Country, by Francis 
H. E. Palmer. (G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York.) 
Chapter XXXIII in Carpenter's Geographical 
Reader Europe (American Book Co.) is also very 
helpful for the pupils. The limitations of the Russian 
peasant are many. To some extent they are the re- 
sult of the former days of serfdom. In general the 
peasants are shiftless and improvident. They live 
practically from hand to mouth. The primitive way 
in which farming is carried on is the result of ig- 
norance and poverty. These people have neither the 
education to understand and use complicated farm 
machinery nor the means with which to purchase 
expensive tools. Perhaps the delay in introducing 
modern farming methods is due in part to the Rus- 
sian system of community land holding. The peas- 
ants are very religious or at least make much of re- 
ligious forms. In the midst of the busy market 
(Position 3) and in every hut an icon reminds the 
Russian of his duty towards the church. The char- 
acter of the Russian peasant may be suggested by 
one of his common expressions, ''God and the Czar 
will provide." 



GREECE 

Library Reference Groups afford pupils wlio de- 
sire, or classes that can afford the time, an oppor- 
tunity to visit Greece. Positions iR to 8R, are 
standpoints presenting the general geography, and 
Positions 9R to 15R give a good conception of 
Athens and the Parthenon. 

Greece is a very mountainous peninsula, half 
drowned by ancient land depression, so that it has a 
very irregular outline. River deposits have formed 
some plains, especially at bay heads, and such level 
land is preferred for agriculture. These warm, fer- 
tile lands, protected by mountains and sea, and open 
to the stimulus of sea life and the influences of com- 
mercial intercourse, fostered the development of civ- 
ilization in Greece before the time of Christ. The 
cross ranges of mountains which separate the valleys 
and plains from one another, favored the division of 
Greece into little states that resisted union and facili- 
tated the conquests by Alexander and Rome. The 
climate, that of the horse latitude belt on the sub- 
tropical border of the temperate zone, is naturally 
rather dry, and shepherds are the typical figure of 
upland life, forests having been long stripped from 
most districts. The extensive ruins in regions now 
but sparsely inhabited bespeak the more settled and 
prosperous conditions of early times before wars of 
conquest and Turkish oppression devastated the 
land and despoiled such monuments as the Parthe- 
non. Athens was located about the natural fortress 



122 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

of the Acropolis, which crag was far enough from 
the mountains and from the sea to prevent surprise 
of its defenders by a sudden attack. The oHve 
groves of the plain gave the agricultural basis the 
early settlement required. The present growth of 
the capital and its seaport are significant of reviving 
industry and commerce in Greece, which are a natur- 
al result of its separation from Turkey and reopening 
to the free influences of civilization and education. 

The causal account of Grecian history and geog- 
raphy in Tarr & McMurry's geographical text (Mac- 
millan) is much more complete than that in other 
elementary geographies, and in combination with the 
travel sketches in Carpenter's geographical reader 
on Europe (American Book Co.) and in the vol- 
ume on Modern Europe in the series of readers en- 
titled The World and its People (Silver, Burdett & 
Co.) gives the information most necessary to satis- 
fy the interest aw^akened by the two trips outlined in 
the Guide. The glorious early history of Greece, and 
some account of such ruins as the tombs and lion 
gate of Mykenae (Position 2R) are simply related 
for children in Guerber's The Story of the Greeks 
(American Book Co.). 



AFRICA 

EGYPT 

'The People, the Monuments and the Desert" are 
studied from Positions i, 2, and 3. Afterward we 
return to Positions i and 2 to examine more closely 
"The Sphinx and the Pyramids/' This double treat- 
ment gives the pupils an opportunity to recite about 
what they have seen upon their first visit before 
they are called upon for more detailed observations. 
This plan greatly simplifies the work of both teacher 
and pupil. "Cairo" is studied from Positions 4, 5, 
6, and 7; 'Trrigation" from Positions 8 and 9. 

We have suggested as Library Reference Groups 
a study of ''The Bedouins" from one Position and 
''The Nile" from three Positions. These two pic- 
turesque and interesting phases of Egyptian life are 
not of greatest geographical importance for the 
upper grammar grades. They are therefore treated 
as supplementary studies. 

The marked contrast between the surface 
features and people in Egypt and in our country 
offers abundant opportunity for effective and in- 
teresting teaching. With the attention centered 
upon the characteristic parts of the scenes which are 
being studied, the pupil obtains a remarkable 
familiarity with Egyptian life and its surroundings. 
To secure the best results, however, a determined 
effort must be made to locate the pupil as he takes 
each Position in relation to the surrounding coun- 



124 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

try. This requires frequent and definite reference 
to maps. 

The Pyramids are, curiously enough, the result of 
geographical conditions. The soil of the desert, un- 
protected by a covering of vegetation, is heaped into 
hills and scooped into hollows by the action of the 
wind. To provide burial places therefore, which 
shall be safe from excavation by the movements of 
the atmosphere, it was necessary to prevent 
the sand from drifting. At first, four walls 
were built enclosing a rectangular space. Greater se- 
curity from natural changes and from grave robbery 
was gained later by covering the top of this enclosure 
with masonry. Following this came the desire to 
raise the tomb above the level of the desert. The 
elevation helped to keep the mound from being cov- 
ered with soil and it also gave a conspicuousness 
which was gratifying. The desire for increased 
height as well as greater protection from robbery led 
to the building of the step pyramids. From the 
rough structure of this type to the more finished and 
beautifully proportioned pyramids of Kheops and 
Kefren is but a step in the process of evolution. The 
pyramids are therefore, the result of an attempt to 
provide a permanent and secure burial place amid 
the shifting sands of the desert. 

It will be well for the pupils to know that, 
although the more picturesque way to reach the pyra- 
mids is by camel or donkey, science has solved the 
problem of rapid transit between these places by 
means of the ubiquitous trolley line. This is one of 
the manifestations of the presence of a newer and 
more progressive civilization among the older and 



EGYPT 125 

more conservative people. The dam at Assouan and 
the bridge at Cairo are other illustrations. 

The descriptions of the Pyramids and the Sphinx 
given on pages 1 19-127 in The Boy Travelers in 
Egypt and the Holy Land, by Knox, will be inter- 
esting at this time. The story of Gemilla, the Child 
of the Desert (Seven Little Sisters, Jane An- 
drews) might also be recalled or read. Stories of 
Ancient Peoples, Emma J. Arnold (American Book 
Company) contains an attractive description of the 
Egyptians. 

The study of irrigation is an important topic in 
geography. Lands which were once thought to be 
hopelessly arid are now watered upon a large scale 
by scientific methods and yield large crops. Any- 
thing which increases the productivity of the soil or 
makes a barren region fertile has a direct bearing 
upon the relation of the earth to man. 

Absence of vegetation in Egypt is due entirely to 
lack of moisture. In fact the soil is more than us- 
ually fertile, for the finely pulverized mineral matter, 
which serves as natural fertilizer, has not been 
washed away by rain and by wet weather streams. 
From time immemorial some form of irrigation has 
been practiced in Egypt. (An extended and very in- 
teresting account of the methods employed is given 
in Bulletin No. 130 of the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture entitled Egyptian Irrigation. Write 
to the Superintendent of Documents, Union Build- 
ing, Washington, D. C, concerning the way to ob- 
tain a copy.) The curious primitive contrivances 
still in use for raising the water of the Nile and the 
recent successful attempt to control scientificallv. 



126 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

upon a large scale, the floods for the purpose of 
watering the land, make the study of irrigation in 
Egypt especially interesting and important. 

Life on the desert (as seen in Position iR of the 
Library Reference Group), shows to a remarkable 
degree the influence of its environment. 

The Bedouin, freed by his nomadic state from the 
restraints of a regularly organized and well-gov- 
erned settlement in which the identity, occupation and 
home of each individual are more or less accurate- 
ly known, easily and naturally develops habits of 
plundering and treachery. Every caravan must be 
prepared to defend itself against attacks. Even the 
women of the deserts go armed. 

The dark, orange-colored tents of camels' or goats' 
hair are more serviceable than white cotton ones be- 
cause they are more nearly the color of the desert 
soil, less glaring in the daytime and warmer at night. 

The long legs of the camel and its broad feet are 
facts worthy of notice in fitting the camel for travel 
upon loose, yielding sand. The relation of this ani- 
mal to the water supply will probably be familiar to 
all. 



CENTRAL AFRICA 

Moist equatorial plains are the homes of uncivil- 
ized races; they have proved unfit for European 
settlement. Nevertheless they constitute a strongly 
marked field of distinct geographical relations, they 
supply important products to world commerce, and 
the problems of their colonial government are cur- 
rent topics of moment. It is well worth while to 
study with care a good type of tropical conditions 
and life. Tw^o stereographic excursions in the Congo 
Free State are planned, one to study the Life of 
Central Africa from four Positions, the second to 
know the Congo river in its relation to commerce 
and life as presented by a six-Position Group, com- 
posed of five single Positions and a pair of Posi- 
tions. 

An abundance of supplementary work has been 
provided, as detailed in the small-type paragraphs. 
After a pupil has studied a main Position with some 
care under detailed guidance, he is able to appre- 
ciate other scenes that show variations from the type. 
He will not merely look with momentary interest 
because the scene is novel, but his preparation will 
enable and lead him to note consciously the signifi- 
cant features of the scenery or action. He will prob- 
ably correlate his observations with knowledge al- 
ready systematized in his mind. The additional 
stereographs will be used like supplementary readers, 
being taken from a table or case whenever a 



12S GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

pupil has finished the other work of any period, or 
being loaned for home use. Without making de- 
mands on class time, they may greatly enrich class 
recitations through reports of the enterprising pupils 
who voluntarily undertake this supplementary work. 

A good summary of the essential facts as to the 
Congo basin is given in the International Geography, 
Teachers themselves should read at least parts of 
Stanley's accounts of his explorations, which are 
recommended for the pupils, and they should also 
read some of the recent books and magazine articles 
on present conditions in the Congo Free State. 
Adams' Commercial Geography gives a good sketch 
map of the Congo rail and w^ater routes; it would 
be well to have some pupil reproduce it on a large 
sheet of wrapping paper for class use. 

The aim of the teacher, in reviewing the obser- 
vations of the pupil by means of class recitations, 
should be to make clear the effects of tropical climate 
and the physiography of Africa in checking the de- 
velopment of the natives and in subjecting them to 
European colonial government. Life there is easy; 
the rivers yield fish, the forests supply flesh, the earth 
produces fruit with slight labor, the simplest cloth- 
ing and shelter suffices for all seasons. Every tribe 
has remained along its own reach of the river, 
developing only such rude arts as the making of ca- 
noes and nets, utensils of pottery and rude tools of 
wrought iron, content with this step above savagery. 
Africa has remained a Dark Continent of savage 
life in its tropical interior, because the coastal belt 
of fever-ridden lowland plains, and the succeeding 
ranges of mountains or plateau scarps through which 



CENTRAL AFRICA 129 

the rivers pass by gorges and cataracts, present a 
double barrier to exploration and commerce. Be- 
cause the coast regions were claimed by European 
nations long ago, the Congo Free State has 
only a narrow strip of land extending to the Atlantic 
ocean, although beyond the coastal belts it has been 
free to expand across the broad basin of the great 
river. 

The scenes on the Congo bring vividly before the 
pupils the contrast and the transition from the most 
primitive to modern means of transport. Efificient 
transport means, as the chosen scenes show, the 
spread of commerce, the centralization of govern- 
ment, the stimulation of systematic industry, and 
numberless changes in life customs and beliefs, as 
from nakedness to clothing and from paganism to 
Christianity. An example is the difference between 
the clearings and culture of savage and barbarous 
conditions, shown from Position i and Position 2, 
and the extensive and systematic agriculture of the 
plantation where one stands at Position 3. The 
changes and contrasts studied enable a child to 
realize the value of our great systems for transporta- 
tion and communication. 

There are many lines of comparison and exten- 
sion of types suggested in the Student's Field Guide. 
Where previous preparation of teacher and class 
has been rich, these will prove very profitable in- 
deed. For example, Leopoldville is instanced as a 
type of population center that develops where there 
is a break in lines of transportation, with need of 
transhipment and need of division of merchandise 



130 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

through middlemen to divergent Hnes. Most cities, 
seaports for example, are of this type in origin and 
growth. Here is an opportunity to establish or em- 
phasize a fundamental geographical principle. The 
teacher who would study this general truth thor- 
oughly should read The Theory of Transporta- 
tion, published as one of the issues of the Depart- 
ment of Economics of Columbia University some 
years ago. While many classes may lack time or 
preparation to make much of every line of thought 
suggested, teachers should be alert to use every op- 
portunity offered for reviewing or enriching know- 
ledge gained in earlier months and grades, as well 
as insistent that the facts concerning Central Africa 
and its peooles should be noted and understood. 



ASIA 

INDIA 

From Positions i to 6 we study various phases 
of life among the poorer classes in India ; from Posi- 
tions 7, 8, and 9, the Himalaya Mountains and the 
plains of northern India; from Positions 10, 11, 12, 
and 13 the ''Religions" of India, and from the re- 
maining Positions the usefulness of the elephant to 
man. It is expected that the topic ''Elephants'' 
(Positions 14, 15, and 16) may be prepared in less 
than the usual study period of thirty minutes. In 
this, however, as in everything else, the teacher 
must adapt the plan of work to the class. 

Rice and Tea are discussed in full in connection 
with the general topic ''Industries of the World/' 

Library Reference Groups provide for the obser- 
vation of an elephant hunt and for glimpses of cer- 
tain typical Indian cities. 

It may be well to note in passing that the Hindu 
religion restricts the people of that faith to an almost 
exclusively vegetable diet. The flesh of the carabao 
is therefore not available for food. 

The railroad lines and the well-kept roads stand 
out in sharp contrast to the primitive tools and slip- 
shod ways of the native Hindu. These improve- 
ments are one indication of British occupancy and 
influence. 

If samples of metal ornaments or inlaid work from 



132 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

India can be borrowed for the use of the school it 
will be easier for the pupils to appreciate the su- 
periority of the carefully wrought hand-made article 
over the more ordinary product turned out by ma- 
chinery. The opportunity w^hich the hand-made 
article offers for revealing the individuality, skill and 
artistic sense of the workman is readily appreciated 
by pupils trained in drawing and manual work. 

The Himalaya Mountains are an excellent type of 
vigorous, mature mountains. 

The Vale of Cashmere is a famous example of a 
waste-filled valley. The wide and highly fertile 
plain through w^hich the Jhelum winds its way was 
formed by the deposition of a vast amount of sedi- 
ment. The river escapes from this mountain-rim- 
med valley through a steep, narrow, trench-like 
gorge. Warping or uplift of the earth's crust at that 
point keeps pace with the deepening of the river's 
bed. As a result, the river gradient within the Vale 
of Cashmere is so flat that the waste remains where 
it has been deposited. 

The soil which forms the plains of the Ganges 
River has been washed down from the Himalaya 
Mountains and from the plateau of southern India. 
It is therefore, a river-made plain (Physical Geog- 
raphy, Davis, p. 290). 

Carpenter's Geographical Readers are useful sup- 
plementary books. Let the children read Benares, 
the Holy City of the Hindus (Asia, pp. 234-240), 
and the description of the Mohammedan service 
(Europe, p. 377). Refer them also to the account 
of the working elephants (Asia, pp. 194-197). 

For the teacher Holdich's India (Appleton & 



INDIA 133 

Co.) gives the latest and most comprehensive survey 
of the geography of India. Compton's Indian Life 
in Town and Country (G. P. Putnam's Sons) de- 
scribes very interestingly the people. The two 
books admirably supplement each other. 



CHINi\ 

The topics presented for stereoscopic field work 
are ''The People and their Homes/' ''Surface 
Features/' "Bamboo'' and "The Waterways of 
China." The number of duplicates supplied for each 
Position indicates the plan of work to be followed in 
the study period. Teachers who prefer may study 
"Surface Features" first. The pupils are likely to 
be more interested, however, if they first get a 
glimpse of the life of the people. The order of 
topics is not fixed. 

The Positions from which the study of the People 
is pursued have been selected to permit study of the 
highest and lowest orders of Chinese civilization. 
The experience gained from these standpoints will 
afford a substantial foundation for further instruc- 
tion by the teacher or extended reading by the 
pupils. 

The garments of a person of rank in China are 
made of the richest silks and satins elaborately em- 
broidered. The use of silk is to be expected when 
we remember that China is the home of the silk 
worm and that the manufacture of silk goods was 
carried on by the Chinese long before Europeans 
knew anything about it. The contempt of the 
Chinese for foreign ways and habits is also a reason. 
In China, fashions in dress never change. Costly 
garments are therefore possible and clothing is an 
article of property handed down from one genera- 
tion to another. 



CHINA 135 

Three of the four Positions from which the sur- 
face features are studied show rugged land of some 
altitude. This is characteristic for the greater por- 
tion of China proper is mountainous. The extensive 
cultivation of the hillsides and the importance of the 
narrow bottom lands along the lower slopes of the 
valleys are well brought out in Position 7. All of 
the hillsides in the Kiangsi province are tea lands. 
This region is upon the northern edge of the hot 
belt and within the influence of the monsoons which 
bring considerable rain. The sloping hillsides drain 
aw^ay the excess of w^ater from the roots of the tea 
plant. All conditions are thus favorable for the 
growth of tea. The most densely settled part of 
China is, of course, the alluvial and highly fertile 
plain upon which Pekin is situated (Position 6). 

The plan of the work on bamboo includes the ex- 
amination of specimens and a study of the growing 
plant from two standpoints. One of the ordinary 
fishing poles offered for sale by storekeepers will 
furnish a dozen or more specimens. Half of the 
section engaged in study may devote fifteen minutes 
to the specimens while the other half is engaged in 
studying the bamboo seen in the stereographs. 

Upon the outside of the bamboo stem is a hard 
siliceous covering which protects the fiber from 
moisture. It is, therefore, more durable than 
ordinary wood. The hollow cylindrical stem makes 
the bamboo stronger and at the same time lighter 
than a solid stick of the same size. 

The United States Department of Agriculture 
(Bureau of Plant Industry) has issued an important 
and interesting bulletin (No. 43), entitled Japanese 



136 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

Bamboos and Their Introduction into America. 
This bulletin may be obtained for a nominal price. 
For further information write to the Superintendent 
of Documents, Union Building, Washington, D. C. 

In China, the waterways are the most important 
means of transportation. In fact, the rivers and 
canals constitute almost the only interior trade 
routes. Some of the canals, however, are in a very 
bad condition. The Pei-ho lazily meanders through 
a very level country densely populated. On both 
sides of the river the soil is alluvial and fertile. 
Roads are very poor and are used only by heavy 
carts, wheelbarrows or pack animals. Railways are 
still very few, although the right to build many lines 
has recently been granted. Cost of transportation, 
when compared with the rates charged in the United 
States, is enormous. 

In the Library Reference Groups seven Positions 
provide opportunity for the study of ''Chinese Cities'' 
and 'The Great Wall of China." Pekin, Mukden 
and Canton are examples of cities built upon a plain 
and protected from invasion by high walls. They 
are interesting in this respect chiefly in illustrating a 
custom of the past. Geographically a walled city is 
not important as a type. The Great Wall served to 
defend China proper against the Tartar hordes from 
the north. It extends from the sea near Shan-hai- 
kwan (see Position 5) to the Desert of Gobi, a dis- 
tance of about 1,500 miles. The wall is from fifteen 
to twenty feet wide and thirty feet high. It is faced 
on both sides with slate-colored brick. 



JAPAN 

Since the life of the Japanese has been determined 
by their own homeland, during past centuries of iso- 
lation, the class will take Positions i, 2, 3 and 4 to 
study the ''Surface Features of Japan.'' The stand- 
points for observation have been so chosen as to 
present typical phases of Japanese industry in their 
relation to relief. Japanese household life strikingly 
presents the contrast between Oriental ways and our 
own; and the characteristics of typical Japanese 
buildings being closely related to climate and other 
physical controls, the subject is eminently geographi- 
cal. Therefore the class take Positions 5, 6, 7 and 
8 to observe ''J^P^^^se Homes." Two additional 
Positions, 9 and 10, are to be taken more at leisure. 

Both topics for the stereographic study of Japan 
present broader fields for observation and thought 
than can be covered in one half-hour lesson. Two 
periods of observation from four related Positions 
may precede a recitation; or six duplicates of each 
stereographed scene may be secured, enabling all 
the class to occupy at length the first twO' Positions 
during one period, taking the last two Positions 
after an intervening recitation. Another plan would 
provide a set of twelve (or 48) duplicate stereo- 
graphs for the first Position in each group, since 
thorough study from one Position would make it 
possible to observe effectively from the other three 
more quickly. In this case four duplicate stereo- 
graphs for each of the three remaining Positions 
would be needed. 



138 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

The recent rise of Japan to a position of prime 
importance makes extended study o-f the people wise, 
so four Library Reference Groups have been 
planned. The students will take eight or more Po- 
sitions for the study of the following topics : 'Japa- 
nese Cities," ''Transportation in Japan,'' '7^P^" 
nese Handicrafts'' and "Child Life in Japan." In all 
these studies to be made by selected pupils, the life 
of Japan is to be compared with that of America, 
thus enabling teachers to make the reports to the 
class by special pupils the basis for reviews in which 
all may share actively. Some of the topics may be 
studied from so many Positions that these may be 
divided among several children for home study, who 
will share the duty of reporting to their classmates. 

Level land fit for culture forms so small a part of 
the area of Japan that it is necessary to till every 
available acre intensively. Although the growing 
season is long and the forested mountain slopes indi- 
cate abundant rainfall for agriculture, the food sup- 
ply has ever been limited. Famines killed millions 
during the centuries of isolation. In consequence 
there are comparatively few domestic animals : they 
eat too much ; men do their work. Land must be 
divided among so many farmers for intensive culti- 
vation that fields and terrace plots are too small for 
our agricultural machines. Japan's war with Russia 
was due to the same causes; the nation fought for 
freedom of trade with the continent that she might 
sell her manufactures there and buy food in ex- 
change, and that her surplus population might settle 
there instead of crowding the islands until famine 
returned. 



JAPAN 139 

The architecture of Japan resembles that of China, 
as a result of Japan's position. Roofs are the promi- 
nent feature of Japanese buildings, for they must 
give shelter from hot summer suns and from heavy 
rainfall. The sliding panels of lattice work and 
paper that form walls and partitions are adapted 
to sultry sunny days of the long summer of southern 
Japan, but when the damp and chill winds of the 
cool season come a double or triple outer wall is wel- 
come, and wadded clothes, as one shivers over a 
charcoal fire. These features are due to the climatic 
position of Japan. Japanese buildings are usually 
light and they are also firmly framed ; they yield to 
earthquake shocks wnthout injury, they also burn 
quickly. They stand above the ground on posts that 
rest on stone sockets, and thus the frame is little 
affected by any ordinary earth movements. 

The subject "Japanese Homes," and the supple- 
mentary topic, ''J^P^^^se Handicrafts" afford op- 
portunity to present the fine artistic taste of the Japa- 
nese, their love for flowers, the care they give to 
their home grounds, and the simplicity of their home 
life. The teacher who has read such books as 
Gulick's Evolution of the Japanese, and Knox's 
Japanese Life in Tozvn and Country will be able 
to fully use the opportunity for the improvement as 
well as the information of her pupils. 



KOREA 

Korea has been a decadent land, backward among 
Orientals, hardly touched by western civilization. 
The single excursion in Korea takes the class to six 
Positions whence they may study ''Korean Ways'' 
of working and living. The Library Reference 
Group enables pupils with time and inclination for 
further observation to make a comparative study of 
the ''Cities of Korea." 

The rude methods of farm life and city crafts in 
Korea are much like those followed for brief periods 
by American pioneers on the frontiers. In early 
times settlers supplied all their wants by home pro- 
duction and manufacture, for lack of roads forbade 
commercial exchange. For example, until a grist 
mill was established in a settlement, corn was often 
ground to coarse meal in a mortar fashioned from a 
section of a tree trunk, as today in Korea. But 
labor has ever been scarce and dear in America, so 
that invention has been stimulated to produce ma- 
chines; and division of labor, with factory produc- 
tion and commercial exchange of all the require- 
ments of life, has come apace. 

Koreans lack American or Japanese enterprise. 
They are satisfied to live in hovels and to work 
leisurely with laborious methods. Labor receives 
low, very low wages, yet produces so little that its 
products are costly. Americans are selling more and 
more flour in Asia, for machines in our grain fields 



KOREA 141 

and in our flouring mills enable us to produce it 
cheaply as well as of the finest quality. However, 
Koreans are so poor — they produce so little and 
have so little purchasing power — and are so lacking 
in desire for betterment that little of our considerable 
export of flour to the Far East goes to Korea. It 
is to be expected, however, that a new generation, 
trained under Japanese leadership, w^ll make great 
advancement. 

These paragraphs indicate the line of economic 
thought easily opened to a teacher and class by this 
excursion in Korea. A teacher who has studied the 
elements of economics, or who has read such a text 
as Bullock's Introdttction to the Study of Economics 
(Silver, Burdett & Co.), can conduct the review of 
this lesson most effectively, but many simple and 
most important conclusions may be developed in any 
class. 



PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 

The Philippine Islands, as one of the insular pos- 
sessions of the United States, deserve some atten- 
tion in American schools. The commercial relations 
between the United States and the islands, although 
always of some importance, are likely under the new 
conditions to be vastly increased. The United 
States, moreover, in acquiring the ownership of the 
Philippines, assumed the task of properly governing 
an alien people. To give the pupils of our schools 
some concrete information of the present conditions 
and to begin the preparation which shall enable them 
to understand in some degree at least the problems 
of a commercial, industrial and political character 
connected with the development of a colonial policy, 
a Library Reference Group of four Positions has 
been provided. From these standpoints the pupils 
are directed to observe the characteristic customs of 
the people, the kind of buildings common in the city 
and in the country, the form of vegetation in- 
digenous to a tropical climate, the increase of the 
commercial importance of Manila, and in general 
the relation of life to its surroundings. 



INDUSTRIES OF THE WORLD 

An observational knowledge of 'the great indus- 
tries is most helpful toward an understanding of 
national commercial relations and industrial geog- 
raphy. 

TEXTILES 

Changes in methods of textile manufacture led to 
revolutionary transformations in all industries, so 
the class will take Position iIT to study cotton in 
the field, and Positions 2IT, 3IT, 4IT, 5IT, 6IT 
and 7IT to observe contrasting stages in the develop- 
ment of methods of **Spinning and Weaving/' 
From Positions SIT, 9IT and loIT a study is made 
of *'Sheep Raising," with emphasis placed upon the 
geographical controls existing between lands and 
peoples and the character of the sheep and wool they 
produce. The story of ^^Cotton from Field to Fac- 
tory" is presented by a Library Reference Group of 
seven Positions ; and five Positions embody a sup- 
plementary field and factory trip for studying the 
changes from 'Tlax to Linen/' These are treated 
so fully that by providing two duplicates of each 
Position they may be used for study by all of a class. 

The most important general truth in connection 
with these studies of fibers and textiles is the revo- 
lutionarj^ change in industrial and social life that 
resulted from the displacement of manufacture in 
all homes by production with automatic, power ma- 
chinery in the factories of certain cities. While 



144 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

teachers will be able to answer all questions set to 
guide the pupils, they will be able to interpret the 
underlying principles more broadly and forcefully if 
they have studied the evolution of textile manufac- 
tures and related commerce more fully than can be 
set forth either in the Field Guide or this Manual. 
Several simple reference works are named in the 
Guide, and valuable matter suitable for youth is 
given also in Barnard's Tools and Machines, and 
in Mowry's American Inventions and Inventors 
(both by Silver, Burdett & Co.), v^hile pictures of 
frontier life and home industries are given in Col- 
lin's school History of Vermont (Ginn & Co.). 
Teachers will find a good brief account of the de- 
velopment of American industries in the opening 
chapters of Bullock's Introduction to the Study of 
Economics (Silver, Burdett & Co.) with accom- 
panying bibliographies for each industry. Thurs- 
ton's Economics' and Industrial History (Scott, 
Foresman & Co.) gives a good account of the sev- 
eral stages in industrial evolution in England and 
America. A good, brief, popular account of cotton, 
the geography of its production and the technology 
of its transformation into yarn and cloth, is given in 
Wilkinson's The Story of the Cotton Plant, one 
of Appleton's Library of Useful Stories. Full de- 
scriptions of the retting of flax and its production 
are given in reports which may be obtained from the 
Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. 



FOODS 

While provision of food is fundamental in human 
industry, changes in its production and commerce 
have been consequent to changes in textile manu- 
facture and related progress in transportation, so 
transformations in agriculture, that explain the 
present geography of the industry, are presented 
second. The class take three pairs of Positions, 
I IF and 2IF, 3IF and 4IF, 5IF and 6IF, contrast- 
ing methods of harvesting typical of the backward 
portions of the Old World and those common in 
America. An additional Position is suggested, 
4lFa, of which two duplicates may be provided if 
desired. Further, a pair of Positions, 6IFa and 
6IFb, and a third supplementary Position, 6IFc, 
are recommended for use as tests of the power for 
independent observation and thought the pupils 
have gained, with a view to enabling teachers to 
decide how succeeding stereoscopic field work should 
be planned. Library Reference Groups, presenting 
supplementary Positions iIFR to 46IFR, provide 
plans for first hand study of the production of meat 
and fruit, sugar, coffee, rice and tobacco, as well as 
a number of thoroughly typical scenes in the fishing 
and whaling industries by pupils who need more 
than the class average of work. Several of these 
sets may wisely be provided in duplicate for class 
study where time allows. 

Teachers will find an excellent popular account of 
changes in agriculture and the related development 



146 GEOGRAPHY THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

of milling and commerce in Edgar's Story of a 
Grain of Wheat (Appleton's), while the several 
recent commercial geographies give good brief pres- 
entations. From the invention of the cradle to that 
of the combined harvester advances in agricultural 
machinery have been made in America. The new 
machines have been adopted for use in Europe and 
other temperate lands, but remoter sections of the 
Old World, and especially the East, still cling to 
ancient tools and ways. In the Old World holdings 
are usually small and land values are high, popula- 
tion is dense, labor is cheap, and extensive culture 
by hand is naturally the rule. In America land has 
been free while workers have been so few that 
labor has always commanded high wages. In con- 
sequence there has been constant incentive to im- 
prove tools and invent machines that shall enable 
few workers to till much land. When the broad 
levels of the West were opened, so fit for culture 
by machines, the development of machinery for har- 
vesting grain proceeded apace, and invention of 
power machinery for threshing and cleaning grain 
was made necessary in consequence. In the Old 
World grain is transported relatively short dis- 
tances by land, and until the rise of industrial cities 
nearly all countries grew their own grain. The 
prairies and plains of America are farther from the 
oceans than any other commercial wheat region, 
hence the erection of grain elevators and the hand- 
ling of wheat and corn in bulk in order that the 
West may sell its grains and flour in competition 
with the farmers of Europe, India and Argentina. 



FOODS 147 

Teachers will find the new commercial geography- 
text books for use in high schools the best con- 
densed reference material for their own use on the 
topics treated in the Library Reference Groups con- 
cerning foods. 



MINING, MANUFACTURING AND 
LUMBERING 

The story of steel and the related industries of 
mining, transportation and manufacturing, are 
finely presented in three groups of standpoints. The 
pupils take Positions iIM, 2IM and 3IM in the 
mines of Minnesota, while three supplementary Po- 
sitions, iIMa, 3lMa and 3lMb, may be supplied 
singly or in duplicate if desired. Positions 4IM, 
5IM, 6IM, 7IM, SIM, and 9IM are taken on the 
ore docks of the northern lakes and on Lake Erie, 
while Position 7IM at the Soo Canal and Positions 
SIM and 9IM may be supplemented by sev- 
eral adjoining Positions for further observa- 
tion. The class take Positions loIM, iiIM and 
12IM in the steel works at Pittsburgh to observe the 
immense industrial plants and the impressive ma- 
chinery there in use. Library Reference Groups 
of Positions which may be taken by pupils capa- 
ble of maximum work, present variations of the 
types studied by the class. Positions iIMR to 
20IMR enable observation of the production of coal 
and coke, the mining of copper and gold, and the 
manufacture of plate glass. Positions iILR to 
iSILR place the pupil amid the lumbering opera- 
tions of the giant forests of California and before 
typical scenes in the progress of lumber from forest 
to market. Position iIQR is suggested as a test 
standpoint, placing the pupils in a Cape Ann quarry 



MINING, MANUFACTURING AND LUMBERING 149 

to discover to the teacher how much power for pur- 
poseful observation of industrial activity they have 
acquired. 

Teachers will find an able treatment of the prob- 
lems in the evolution of industry that are involved 
in the stereoscopic excursions outlined here given 
in the opening chapters of McVey's advanced text- 
book on Modern Industrialism (Appleton's). The 
chapter on the Economic History of the United 
States in Redway's The New Basis of Geography, 
treats some topics briefly but suggestively. Emer- 
son's supplementary geography on The New Eng- 
land States gives a condensed account of the de- 
velopment and geography of American industries 
with special reference to the group of states named. 
Full descriptive accounts of all the industries to be 
studied may be found in the magazines. A selection 
of the articles best suited to the use of teachers and 
pupils is given in the Appendix to the Tarr and Mc- 
Murry geography on North America; while arti- 
cles in the most recent periodicals are listed in 
Poole's Index and the Cumulative Index to maga- 
zines. 



VOLCANOES 

The essential feature of a volcano is the opening 
in the earth's crust through which clouds of con- 
densed steam, choking gases, finely pulverized rock 
dust or streams of molten lava are ejected. The 
cone itself or accumulated mass of material may or 
may not be present. Important volcanic eruptions 
are known to have occurred without the formation 
of mountains. 

Interesting and helpful descriptions of volcanoes 
and volcanic action will be found in the text books 
of geology by Brigham (D. Appleton & Co.) and 
Tarr (MacMillan) and in the text books by the 
same authors and publishers on physical geography. 

The soil derived from the decay of lava and made 
up of fine dust ejected from the volcanic vent is es- 
pecially fertile. This fact together with the favor- 
able climatic conditions near Naples makes the more 
gradual slopes of Vesuvius very productive. 

The conical form of Fujiyama situated in a re- 
gion of volcanic activity points directly to its origin. 
It is a dormant volcano. Already the mountain tor- 
rents have begun to cut radiating furrows near the 
apex of the cone. As weathering and erosion con- 
tinue the relatively smooth surface of the mountain 
side will become rough and uneven like Mt. Hood. 
In Tarr's Elementary Geology and in Gilbert and 
Brigham's Introduction to Physical Geography 
under the topic ''History of a Volcanic Cone" the 



VOLCANOES 151 

birth, growth and decay of this form of mountain are 
interestingly described. 

An excellent and brief description of the outbreak 
of Mt. Pelee is given in a pamphlet issued by the 
publishers of the stereographs entitled vS'^. Pierre 
and Mont Pelee by George Kennan Current Peri- 
odicals like Harper's Weekly will contain accounts 
of the eruption of Vesuvius in April, 1906. 

Samples of lava, basalt, pumice and volcanic dust 
ought to be in every school collection. Dealers in 
minerals and rocks can supply these materials; fre- 
quently a request to the pupils to bring in suitable 
specimens will be all that is necessary. 



THE 

UNDERWOOD STEREOGRAPHS 

IN THE 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS 



"I cannot conceive of anything better for educational pur- 
poses." — Professor Archibald Sayce, Queen's College, Ox- 
ford. 

**There is nothing more appropriate for giving object les- 
sons in geography than stereoscopic photographs. One look 
through the stereoscope teaches more than hours spent in 
hearing or reading descriptions." — A. Kirchman, Ph.D., 
Toronto University. 

"When one looks at an ordinary picture of a distant place 
with the naked eye, one feels himself to be still in America — 
or wherever he may be at the time. Through the stereoscope, 
with the outer world shut off by the hood, one feels himself 
to be looking right at the scene itself." — Walter L. Hervey, 
Ph.D., Board of Examiners, New York City. 

"It is as absurd to study history or geography without ade- 
quate first-hand experience of seeing places, things and 
people with the lifelike realism of the stereoscope, as to study 
natural sciences without a laboratory. Sense experience 
should be the foundation stone of mind-building." — Dr. Win- 
ship, Editor of the Journal of Education. 

"I am personally of the opinion that the stereograph sup- 
plies the very data which completes the knowledge of the 
teacher and renders his research work less arduous, by giv- 
ing him the facts he requires and equipping him with the re- 
sourcefulness of a travelled man." — G. F. Daniell, E.Sc, 
Science Master in Mercers' School, London. 

"The stereoscopic photograph induces through its plasticity 
a more intense 'looking into' the object. In other illustra- 
tions one always feels the lack of telling details, but in the 
stereograph one really does find them. The flat picture is 
looked at in a more superficial way, and leaves an almost use- 
less impression. The pupil never gets the intense impression 



of reality which the stereograph gives." — Dr. Karl Egli, 
Zurich, Switzerland. 

"We have recently introduced the Underwood & Under- 
wood stereographs into the Cleveland Normal School to help 
us in our geography work. The many expressions of inter- 
est and pleasure from the lips of our students are good evi- 
dence that these stereographs are winging them far beyond 
the sense horizon that shuts them in." — Jennie D. Pullen, In- 
structor in Geography. 

"The manageability of the instruments, the facility with 
which the children manipulate them, their manifest pleasure 
in using them, and the zest with which they report their dis- 
coveries and follow up their inferences, convince me that 
the stereoscope provides us with an instrument for visual 
illustration superior in handiness and general effectiveness to 
any such instrument hitherto in use. I think it suitable for 
students of any age. We have procured a set of stereoscopes 
and stereographs for use in this Training College.'' — Rev. 
G. H. Fathers, Vice-Principal and Alaster of Method, Culham 
College. 

"I have used your stereographs as an aid to the teaching 
of Geography and to illustrate object lessons for several 
years, and find that they impress the minds of the scholars 
in a way that no other means short of actual visits to the 
various scenes could do. A point that cannot be too much 
insisted upon is that the stereographs are not merely pic- 
tures, but have an effect upon the mind similar to that ex- 
perienced by beholding the actual scene itself — F. M. Glad- 
well, Principal, Sandridge, Board School, St. Albans. 

"It is evident that whole classes may use them in the 
ordinary work of demonstration, or the pupil may study them 
in his individual field work — for much of the field work may 
be done indoors as well as out-of-doors. In the study of 
foreign countries and their people there are great opportuni- 
ties. And, indeed, in the use of the stereoscope and the 
stereoscopic view there is an entirely new field to be opened. 
It is a field that hitherto has been closed to both teacher and 
pupil, and to both there are possibilities of study and research 
that are little dreamed of. In my own studies they have been 
a revelation. Indeed, I do not know of any device more 
helpful to the teacher of geography than a stereoscope with 
a good assortment of stereographs." — Jacques W. Redway, 
F. R. G. S. 



"Lately I have been testing the capabilities of the Underwood 
& Underwood system of Visual Instruction by means of care- 
fully selected stereographs. I am fully satisfied as to the excel- 
lence of the system as an aid to teaching 'World Knowledge/ 
I took several friends, old and young, through the Yosemite 
Valley, and though we never left our own country, we thor- 
oughly enjoyed our realistic visit to this marvelous valley, 
and the mental impressions of the scenes have proved to be 
lasting. We followed our guide from point to point and 
listened while he told us about the natural wonders we were 
so entrancingly gazing at — the exquisite reflections of Mirror 
Lake — the fairy-like beauty of Bridal Veil Falls — the 
grandeur of the view from Cloud Rest — the eerie, uncanny 
feeling of standing over nothing on Glacier Point — and the 
awe-inspiring mass of El Capitan. To us, shut in our 
stereoscopes from all notice of our immediate surroundings, 
these were so real that often have we stretched out our hands 
to touch objects which were actually thousands of miles 
away." — J. Morton, Headmaster, Oxford Gardens School, 
North Kensington, W. London. 

"Of late years several devices have come into general use 
in our schools, aimed at arousing, as far as possible, states 
of consciousness essentially similar to the states of con- 
sciousness produced when one is in the actual presence of 
certain remote scenes and objects. If teachers who make 
use of pictorial illustrations, whether through the medium of 
the lantern, wall pictures, drawings, models or similar helps, 
could conveniently and speedily take their pupils into the 
actual presence of the realities instead, it would set an end 
at once to the extensive use of these common aids. The 
essential sensations upon which an experience of seeing any 
scene is founded cannot be aroused in children by any flat 
picture, . . . Natural seeing, which necessitates the 
convergence and divergence of the eyes according to the 
nearness or distance of the objects regarded, is reproduced 
by one mechanical device only — the stereograph. The sensa- 
tions, physical and mental, produced by examining a stereo- 
graph through the stereoscope, are exactly the same in kind 
as we would receive were we looking at the real scene. We 
may therefore provide for our pupils in their class-room an 
experience similar, for instance, to that of actually visiting 
the volcanic phenomena in Yellowstone Park, or of standing 
in the midst of a tea plantation in Ceylon, etc. This is not 
the result merely of looking through a stereoscope at a cer- 



tain stereoscopic view, but it is the result of using a system 
in which the stereographs, a series of special maps, and a 
particular method of presentation are all important factors." — 
Education, London, England. 

''in late years there has been perfected something that, in 
my judgment, goes ahead of pictures, and quenches the mind's 
thirst for the concrete almost as completely as the very object 
before the bodily sight. I refer to the stereograph. The art 
of illustration, as we all know, has been marvelously improved 
in recent years. Our commonest school-books today have 
process illustrations that for accuracy, delicacy and beauty are 
greatly superior to the best of sixty years since. Our ten-cent 
magazines are familiar miracles of picture-books. Certainly 
the human mind has been vastly enriched by this cheapening 
and perfecting of processes of illustration. But even the best 
pictures we still feel to be but pictures; they do not create 
the illusions of reality, solidity, depth. 'The best in this kind 
are but shadows.' But with the stereoscope the wonder of 
photography is brought to its culmination. . . . The 
problem of enriching the minds of children with a manifold 
contact with the actual is solved by the stereoscope. . . . 
May we not conclude, then, that the general introduction of 
the stereoscope into the schools would be of incalculable 
value in almost all Hnes of school work? Notably it would 
put new life and interest into the geography, the nature study, 
the language work, while enriching the children's minds with 
varied perceptions in many realms, which would remain part 
of their equipment and a source of their enjoyment for as long 
as they live. This newer, vivider appeal to the desire of the 
concrete is in line with the tendencies and aims of modern 
education, it accords with the teachings of psychology, and it 
has the sanction of the universal experience that the world 
is interesting and eternally worth knowing about. When 
Mahomet found that the mountain would not come to him, 
he went to it. But modern science has worked more miracles 
than could Mahomet's prayers. As our children cannot them- 
selves go out into the world in body, to see and possess it, 
let us nevertheless take them to the world, not in words only, 
or even in pictures only, but in the most vivid and satisfying 
way available, in stereoscopic photographs." — G. J. Smith, 
Ph.D., Board of School Examiners, New York City, 



UNDERWOOD 

STEREOSCOPIC TOURS 



The Underwood Stereoscopic Tours are put up in neat Volume Cases, or 
Underwood Extension Cabinets, and the stereographed places are arranged in 
the order in which a tourist might visit the actual scenes. 

Note that these are all Original Stereographs, not cooies. 

To accompany these Tours we recommend our "Twentieth Century" 
Aliuninum Mahogany Stereoscope. A higher-priced stereoscope can be 
furnished if desired. 

AUSTRIA TOUR — Giving 84 positions, and case. 

BELGIUM TOUR — Giving 24 positions, explanatory notes on backs of 
stereographs, and case. 

BRITISH-BOER WAR —Giving 36 positions, and case. 

BURMA TOUR — Giving 50 positions, and case. 

CANADA TOUR — Giving 72 positions, explanatory notes on backs of stereo- 
graphs, and case. 

CEYLON TOUR —Giving 30 positions, and case. 

CHINA TOUR — Giving 100 positions, with guide book by Prof. James 
Ricalton, 358 pages, cloth, and eight Underwood patent maps and case. 

Boxer Uprising Tour — Cheefoo, Taku, Tientsin — (a part of the China 
Tour) — Giving 26 positions, with guide book, three patent maps and case. 

Hongkong and Canton Tour (a part of the China Tour) — Giving 15 posi- 
tions, with guide book, three patent maDs and case. 

Pekin Tour (a part of the China Tour) — Giving 32 positions, with guide 
book, two patent maps and case. 

UBA AND PORTO RICO TOUR —Giving 100 positions, and case. 

DENMARK TOUR — Giving 36 positions, and case. 

ECUADOR TOUR —Giving 42 positions, and case. 

EGYPT TOUR — Gi\ing 100 positions, with guide book by Prof. James 
H. Breasted, Ph. D., 360 pages, cloth, and twenty Underwood patent 
maps and case. 

ELEPHANT SET — Giving 12 positions, explanatory notes on backs of 
stereographs, and case. 

ENGLAND TOUR — Gi\dng 100 positions, and case. 

FRANCE TOUR —Giving 100 positions, and case. 

GERMANY TOUR — Giving 100 positions, explanatory notes on backs of 
stereographs and case. 

GRAND CANYON OF ARIZONA TOUR— Giving 18 positions, with guide 
book, two Underwood patent maps and case. 

GREECE TOUR —Giving 100 positions, with guide book by Prof. Rufus 
B. Richardson, Ph.D., fourteen Underwood patent maps and case. 
Athens Tour (a part of the Greece Tour) — Gi\-ing 27 positions, with guide 
book by Prof. Richardson, four Underwood patent maps and case. 



INDIA TOUR — Giving 100 positions, with guide book by Prof. James 
Ricalton, ten Underwood patent maps and case. 

Bombay to Cashmere Tour (a part of the India Tour) — Giving 24 posi- 
tions, with guide book by Prof. Ricalton, five Underwood patent maps 
and case. 

IRELAND TOUR —Giving 100 positions, with guide book by Charles 
Johnston, seven Underwood patent maps and case. 
Queenstown, Cork and Dublin Tour (a part of the Ireland Tour) — Gi\dng 
36 positions, with guide book by Charles Johnston, three Underwood 
patent maps and case. 

ITALY TOUR —Giving 100 positions, w^th guide book by D. J. Ellison, D.D., 
and Prof. James C. Egbert, Jr., Ph.D., 602 pages, cloth, and ten Under- 
wood patent maps and case. 
Rome Tour (a part of Italy Tour) — With guide book by Dr. Ellison and 
Prof. Egbert, 310 pages, cloth, and five Underwood patent maps and 
case. 

JAMAICA TOUR —Gi\ing 24 positions, and case. 

JAPAN TOUR — Giving 100 positions, explanatory notes on backs of 
stereographs, and case. 

JAVA TOUR — Giving 36 positions, and case. 

KOREA TOUR — Giving 48 positions, and case. 

MANCHURIA TOUR — Gi\'ing 18 positions, and case. 

MEXICO TOUR — Giving 100 positions, and case. 

NIAGARA FALLS TOUR —Giving 18 positions, ^\*ith guide book, and two 

Underwood patent maps and case. 

NORWAY TOUR — Gi\'ing 100 positions, ^N-ith guide book edited by Prof. 
Julius E. Olson, Ph. D., eight Underwood patent maps and case. 
The Hardanger Fjord Tour (a part of the Norway Tour) — Gi\dng 21 posi- 
tions, with guide book edited by Prof. Olson, two Underwood patent 
maps and case. 

PALESTINE TOUR —Giving 100 positions, with guide book by Rev. Jesse 
L. Hurlbut, D.D., 220 pages, cloth, and seven Underwood patent maps 
and case. 
Jerusalem Tour (a part of the Palestine Tour) — GiA^ng 27 positions, wdth 
guide book, by Dr. Hurlbut, one patent map and case. 

PALESTINE TOUR No 2 — GiA-ing 100 positions, all different from those in 
the above tours, and case. 

PANAMA TOUR — Gi\'ing 36 positions, and case. 

PARIS EXPOSITION TOUR —Giving 36 positions, and case. 

PERU TOUR — Giving 60 positions, and case. 

PHILIPPINE TOUR —Gi^ing 100 positions, and case. 

PILGRIMAGE TO SEE THE HOLY FATHER —Giving 36 positions, with 
guide book, by Rev. Father John Talbot Smith, LL.D., two Underwood 
patent maj,s and case. 

PORTUGAL TOTjII —Giving 60 positions, and case. 

PRESIDENT McKINLEY TOUR —Giving 60 positions, with guide book, 183 
pages, cloth and case. 

PRESIDENT McKINLEY TOUR No 5 A —Giving 60 positions, with guide 
book, 183 page.s, cloth, and genuine leather case, velvet lined, inscrip- 
tion in silver. 

PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT TOUR —Giving 36 positions, and case. 

REAL CHILDREN IN MANY LANDS TOUR — Gi^dng 18 positions, with 
guide book by M. S. Emery, 222 pages, cloth, and case. 

RUBY MINING SET — Giving 9 positions, with explanatory notes on backs 
of stereographs, and case. 



RUSSIA TOUR — Giving 100 positions, with guide book by M. S. Emery, 
216 pages, cloth, and ten Underwood patent maps and case. 

Moscow Tour (a part of the Russia Tour) — Gi\ing 27 positions, with 
guide book, three patent maps and case. 

St. Petersburg Tour (a part of the Russia Tour) — Gi\'ing 39 positions, 
with guide-book, five patent maps and case. 

RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR — Gi^'ing 100 positions, and case. 

SAN FRANCIoCO DISASTER TOUR —Giving 36 positions, and case. 

SCOTLAND TOUR — Giving 84 positions, explanatory notes on backs of 
stereographs and case, 

SICILY TOUR — Gi\'ing 54 positions, and case. 

SPAIN TOUR — Gi^-ing 100 positions, and case. 

"SPANISH BULL FIGHT" —Giving 12 positions, and case. 

ST. PIERRE AND MONT PELEE TOUR — Gi^-ing IS positions, with guide 
book by the celebrated traveler, George Kennan, and three Underwood 
patent maps and case. 

SWEDEN TOUR — Gi\4ng 100 positions, with guide book edited by Prof. 
Jules Mauritzson, eignt Underwood patent maps and case. 
Stockholm Tour (a part of the Sweden Tour ) — Gi\-ing 36 positions, guide 
book edited by Prof. Mauritzson, three Underwood patent maps and 
case. 

SWITZERLAND TOUR — Giving 100 positions, with guide book by M. S. 

Emery, 274 pages, cloth, and eleven Lnderwood patent maps and case. 
Bernese Alps Tour (a part of the Switzerland Tour) — Gi\-ing 27 positions. 

v."ith guide bock, three patent maps and case. 
Engadine Tour (a oart of the Switzerland Tour) — Giving 8 positions, 

with guide book, four patent maps and case. 
Lake Lucerne Tour (a part of the Switzerland Tour) — Gi\'ing 11 positions, 

with guide book, three patent maps and case. 
Mont Blanc Tour (a part of the Switzerland Tour) — Gi\dng 23 positions, 

with guide book, two patent maps and case. 
Zermatt Tour (a part of the Switzerland Tour) — Gixdng 15 positions, with 

guide book, two patent maps and case. 

" TRAVEL LESSONS ON THE LIFE OF JESUS'* —Giving 36 positions, 
with comnlete hand-book, 230 pages, cloth, by Rev. Wm. B\Ton Fur- 
bush, Ph.D., and four L'nderwood patent maps and case. 

" TRAVEL LESSONS ON THE OLD TESTAMENT "—Giving 51 positions, 
with complete hand-book, 211 pages, cloth, by Rev. Wm. B>Ton 
Forbush, Ph.D., and four L'nderwood patent maps and case. 

Other interesting and instructive tours can be made up from tbe large 
collection of original stereographs always in stock, or from new stereographs 
which are constantly being added. Nev>- guide books, written by authorities 
on each country-, are being added each j'ear. 

We ad\-ise customers to purchase complete tours on the countries that they 
may be interested in. One hundred stereographed places of one country will 
generally give much better satisfaction than the same number scattered 
over several coimtries. Many of our patrons are placing all of our educational 
tours in their homes alongside of the standard works on those countries. 
S(?liools and pubhc libraries are turning more and more to the stereoscope to 
put their students and readers in touch with tho actual places of which they 
are stud\dng. The L'nited States Government considered them so valuable 
that aU educational tours published to date, with the new L'nderwood 
Extension Cabinet, were purchased for the L'nited States Military Academy 
at West Point. 

When two or more of the "100" tours are wanted, we recommend the 
"L'nderwood Extension Cabinet". It can be "built up" from time to time, 
as desired, holding from 200 to 2000 stereographed places, or more. 

UNDERWOOD C^ UNDERW^OOD 
3-5 West 19th Street, Cor. Fifth Avenue, New York 

LONDON, ENGLAND. OTTAWA, KANSAS 

TORONTO. CANADA. SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA 



TRAVELING IN THE HOLY LAND 
THROUGH THE STEREOSCOPE 

A TOUR CONDUCTED BY 

JESSE LYMAN HURLBUT, D.D. 

Author of Manual of Biblical Geog^raphy, Manual Lessons for the Sunday 
School, Etc.; Editor of Illustrated Notes on the Inter- 
national Sunday School Lessons. 

This volume (196 pp., 7 patent maps) accompanies in guide- 
book fashion a sightseer viewing Palestine from one hundred 
specially desirable standpoints. The author, who knows Pales- 
tine from end to end, says of this work: 

"Have you dreamed of visiting Palestine? Have you longed to know 
what it would mean to stand by the wall of Jerusalem? in Nazareth? by the 
Jordan? You may know now by the right use of the stereographs, specially 
devised maps and this book, what it is to stand in those places." 

The places seen are visited in the order of a practicable 
journey through the country. The comments made by Dr. 
Hurlbut on what is seen from each standpoint include both in- 
teresting explanations of picturesque details of the land and the 
life, as observed at the moment, and reminders of the many 
significant associations of the place with the sacred stories of 
the Old and New Testaments. 

JOHN HENRY BARROWS, D.D., L.L.D., late President of 
Oberlin College, says: 

"I have examined with great interest the stereoscopic photographs of the 
Holy Land made by Messrs. Underwood & Underwood. They are altogether 
the finest which I have ever seen, and with Dr. Hurlbut 's interesting book (con- 
taining patent maps) they enable one to make a journey almost literally through 
Palestine. I have rarely been so pleased as by these stereoscopic photographs. 
They will make a trip to the sacred places accessible to those who do not cross 
the ocean." 

Other comments are like the following: 

"Every student of history or geography, every traveler who desires to 
have a faithful portraiture of what he is to see, or an exact reproduction of what 
he has seen, the teachers of children and those who, in the quiet of their homes, 
wish to pass a pleasant evening in other climes, should certainly possess these 
series of original stereoscopic photographs. For Biblical research and Bible 
students the 'Journeys in the Holy Land' is of the greatest service." 

"The views from the Holy Land, together with the manual, form an inval- 
uable aid for the Sunday School teacher and student of the Bible. With George 
Adam Smith's Historical Geography of the Holy Land, and Underwood & Urider- 
wood's stereoscope and views one would feel as though he were studying the 
facts on the ground where the events were enacted." 



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